Stereotypical behavior. Social stereotypes of behavior in customer behavior Stereotype of behavior

A stereotype is a variant of a personal attitude. An attitude is a kind of prism through which, under certain conditions or in relation to a certain object, a person perceives the world and behaves in only one way. Our world is saturated with stereotypes. You cannot escape them, since they are a product of social consciousness. Stereotypes bring both benefit and harm.

The term "stereotype" was coined in 1922 by sociologist Walter Lippmann. The author interpreted it as “a picture in our head.”

Social attitude includes 3 components:

• knowledge about the object (cognitive element);
• emotions and evaluation in relation to the object (affective component);
• willingness to act in a specific way (behavioral component).

A stereotype is a social attitude with a lack of a cognitive component (lack of knowledge, false information, outdated data). How the attitude of a stereotype predetermines our behavior.

Stereotypical thinking is often limiting. It is often guided by outdated, inaccurate, narrow, erroneous ideas about a person, social phenomenon, natural phenomenon and features of interaction with it.

Stereotypes have their pros and cons:

• On the one hand, this limits, prevents disclosure, or simply harms where the object of the stereotype has changed (minus).
• But on the other hand, stereotypes allow you to save time and effort where objects, situations and actions in relation to them are simple and unchanging (a plus).
• Stereotypes are dangerous because they can form one expectation, but a person will have to face a completely different reality (minus). It would be good if reality turns out to be better. If it’s the other way around, then the individual risks finding himself in a state of frustration and maladjustment.
• Stereotypes help save nervous energy, allowing you to act in similar situations by inertia (a plus).

Each personality has an internal hierarchy of stereotypes. For example, the popular stereotype that a woman should first of all be realized as a housewife, mother, wife, may come first for one person and fifth for another.

Stereotypes are formed and reinforced at the mental level. Cognitive circuits, or a complex of neural connections, arise in the brain, which provide the same reaction to repeated situations. For example, the entire personality can be viewed as a cognitive schema, a schema of our personality.

Most often, stereotypes arise in relation to certain groups differentiated by gender, age, nation, status, role. For example, the well-known statement that all women are the weaker sex. But stereotypes can speak about norms of behavior, development, and life. Then they become intertwined with values.

Most stereotypes are formed in childhood. The influence is exerted by the environment, any significant people. That is, stereotypes are the consequences of learning during the socialization of an individual. I am sure that you or your entourage will have a couple of statements about some nation whose representatives you have not even personally communicated with.

Stereotypes can be both positive and negative, but very often they contain an erroneous generalization.

• For example, what do most people imagine when they hear a woman call herself a housewife? A plump lady with curlers on her head, in a greasy apron, with an exhausted look, not working. In fact, every woman can be called a housewife, and the era of the Internet allows many to work within the walls of the home.
• Or why many people associate the birth of a child with the inevitable collapse of one’s figure and “giving up oneself.” In fact, this is an individual choice of each woman.
• The popular opinion is that old age = wisdom, intelligence. No, these are not synonyms. Just like you can’t respect a person based on their age. Old people, like teenagers, youth, adults are different. Among them there are also unpleasant, selfish, asocial personalities.

We can say that personal stereotypes contain the prejudices of previous generations and the society in which the person was raised.

Features of stereotypical perception

Thinking through stereotypes has the following features:

• The effect of projection, the essence of which is that when communicating, we endow people who are unpleasant to us with our shortcomings, and our advantages - with people who are pleasant.
• The average error effect involves averaging the salient features of another person.
• An order effect, in which when communicating with an unfamiliar person we give more trust to primary information, and when communicating with an old acquaintance - to fresh data.
• The halo effect, or judging a person based on one of his actions (good or bad).
• The effect of stereotyping, or endowing a person with characteristic (stereotypical) traits for a certain group, for example, focusing on the person’s profession.

Types and forms of stereotypes

Stereotypes characterize both individual personal characteristics and external signs of people. For example, the stereotype about the emotionality of women and the rationality of men (individual-personal characteristics) is still alive. There is also a popular stereotype that only disadvantaged or socially disadvantaged people get tattoos. dangerous people, or frivolous (external stereotypes). Or the stereotype that black clothing is a sign of depression and internal discord.

There is no single classification of stereotypes:

• One distinguishes the following types (V.N. Panferov): anthropological, social, emotionally expressive.
• Domestic psychologist Arthur Aleksandrovich Rean identified anthropological, ethno-national, social-status, social-role, expressive-aesthetic, verbal-behavioral stereotypes.
• O. G. Komarova identified 3 types of stereotypes: ethnic, professional, gender role.

Thus, the phenomenon of stereotypes can be viewed from several perspectives:

• content;
• adequacy (often it is based on a true fact);
• origin of stereotypes (conditions and factors of occurrence);
• the role of stereotypes in human life, the perception of other people and the functioning of society.

Adequate, that is, true stereotypes are useful and necessary, since ours also needs to rest. But the influence of inadequate stereotypes should be limited. An adequate stereotype becomes inadequate when true data becomes outdated due to a change in the object of the stereotype.

How to get rid of stereotypes

We cannot control the process of stereotyping, but we can consciously reduce their influence on our behavior and perceptions of people. It is impossible to completely get rid of stereotypes.

Based on the fact that a stereotype is a stable and categorical, simplified idea, a judgment about something, widespread in the environment of the person who adheres to it, it can be argued that the influence of stereotypes will be corrected by:

• change of environment;
• expanding knowledge about the object of the stereotype.

With the first, everything is clear: leave the country, make new friends, and so on. What about the second point?

Stereotypes are cliches, labels. How to get rid of them? Be critical and selective of incoming information. At a minimum, do not accept any fact until you personally encounter it. It is important not to succumb to media provocations or societal pressure (even from parents and older comrades). Learn to double-check information. It's a matter of practice. We heard some fact, doubted it, found several sources, if the information does not disagree, then we can believe it.

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Afterword

Thus, stereotypes can be broken from two positions:

• other people's beliefs through personal example and actions, search for inner harmony;
• their beliefs through the activity of cognition of the external world.

For example, at a young age there can also be poor health. If you accept this in yourself and others, then you are already minus one stereotype. On your day off, you don’t have to run away from home to a cafe or club; you can enjoy the comfort of home. So the second stereotype is broken. There must be children in a marriage, but you have not yet achieved your plans for self-realization, you are not ready to take care of children, although your marriage is strong and tested over the years? This means there is no need to have children yet. Know yourself and create appropriate conditions around you.

Make a list of the most popular stereotypes for you and go ahead to destruction. Check them personally. Self-knowledge and knowledge are the basis for getting rid of stereotypes. In both cases, you will find yourself and be able to control stereotypical behavior and thinking, and not vice versa.

The stereotype of the behavior of an ethnic group has an internal structure that includes strictly defined norms of relations:

• between the team and the individual,
• individuals among themselves,
• intra-ethnic groups among themselves,
• between ethnic groups and intra-ethnic groups.

The behavioral stereotype also includes adaptation skills in the landscape and norms of attitude towards foreigners.

In a dynamic ethnic group, the behavior pattern is extremely changeable. In each new phase of ethnogenesis, the ethnos becomes different from itself, although the continuity of tradition is preserved. Thus, in a behavioral stereotype, two parts can be distinguished: static, unique to the ethnic system and distinguishing it from others; and dynamic, determined by the phase of ethnogenesis and likening the ethnic system to others in the same phase of ethnogenesis. In homeostatic ethnic groups, the behavioral stereotype is stable and is passed on from generation to generation almost without changes.

Quotes and examples from L.N. Gumilyov

“When a nation lives for a long time and calmly in its homeland, it seems to its representatives that their way of life, manners, behavior, tastes, views and social relationships, that is, everything that is now called a “stereotype of behavior,” is the only possible and correct. And if there are any deviations anywhere, then this is due to “lack of education,” which simply means being different from oneself.”

“I remember when I was a child and was interested in Mine Reed, one very cultured lady told me: “Negroes are the same men as ours, only black.” It could not occur to her that a Melanesian witch from the banks of Malaita could say with the same reason: “The English are headhunters like us, only white.” Philistine judgments sometimes seem internally logical, although they are based on ignoring reality. But they immediately break upon contact with it. For medieval science Western Europe ethnography was not relevant. Communication between Europeans and other cultures was limited to the Mediterranean basin, on the shores of which lived the descendants of subjects of the Roman Empire, partially converted to Islam. This, of course, separated them from the “Franks” and “Latins,” i.e., the French and Italians, but the presence common roots culture made the difference not so great as to preclude mutual understanding. But in the era of the great geographical discoveries the situation has changed radically. Even if it was possible to call blacks, Papuans and North American Indians “savages,” the same could not be said about the Chinese, nor about the Indians, nor about the Aztecs and Incas. It was necessary to look for other explanations. In the 16th century European travelers, having discovered distant countries, involuntarily began to look for analogies in them with the forms of life familiar to them. The Spanish conquistadors began to give baptized caciques the title "don", considering them Indian nobles. The heads of the black tribes were called “kings”. Tunguska shamans were considered priests, although they were simply doctors who saw the cause of illness in the influence of evil “spirits”, which, however, were considered as material as animals or foreigners. Mutual misunderstanding was aggravated by the confidence that there was nothing to understand, and then collisions arose, leading to the killing of Europeans who offended the feelings of the aborigines, in response to which the British and French organized cruel punitive expeditions. The civilized Australian aborigine Waipuldanya, or Philip Roberts, recounts stories of tragedies all the more terrible because they arise for no apparent reason. Thus, the aborigines killed a white man who was smoking a cigarette, considering him to be a spirit with fire in his body. Another was pierced with a spear because he took his watch out of his pocket and looked at the sun. The natives decided that he carried the sun in his pocket. And such misunderstandings were followed by punitive expeditions, leading to the extermination of entire tribes. And not only with whites, but also with Malays, the Australian Aborigines and Papuans of New Guinea often had tragic conflicts, especially complicated by the transmission of infection. On October 30, 1968, on the banks of the Manaus River, a tributary of the Amazon, the Atroari Indians killed the Cagliari missionary and eight of his companions solely for tactlessness, from their point of view. So, having arrived at the territory of the Atroari, the padre announced himself with shots that; according to their customs, indecent; entered the maloka hut, despite the protest of the owners; pulled out a child's ear; forbade me to take a pot with my soup. Of the entire detachment, only the forester survived, who knew the customs of the Indians and left Padre Cagliari, who did not heed his advice and forgot that the people on the banks of the Po are not at all similar to those who live on the banks of the Amazon.” L. N. Gumilev “Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth”; Part one, about the visible and the invisible; I. On the usefulness of ethnography; The dissimilarity of ethnic groups.

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An excerpt characterizing the Stereotype of behavior

- I? I? “What did I tell you,” Pierre suddenly said, getting up and starting to walk around the room. - I always thought this... This girl is such a treasure, such... This is a rare girl... Dear friend, I ask you, don’t get smart, don’t doubt, get married, get married and get married... And I’m sure that there will be no happier person than you.
- But she!
- She loves you.
“Don’t talk nonsense...” said Prince Andrei, smiling and looking into Pierre’s eyes.
“He loves me, I know,” Pierre shouted angrily.
“No, listen,” said Prince Andrei, stopping him by the hand. – Do you know what situation I’m in? I need to tell everything to someone.
“Well, well, say, I’m very glad,” said Pierre, and indeed his face changed, the wrinkles smoothed out, and he joyfully listened to Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei seemed and was a completely different, new person. Where was his melancholy, his contempt for life, his disappointment? Pierre was the only person to whom he dared to speak; but he expressed to him everything that was in his soul. Either he easily and boldly made plans for a long future, talked about how he could not sacrifice his happiness for the whim of his father, how he would force his father to agree to this marriage and love her or do without his consent, then he was surprised how something strange, alien, independent of him, influenced by the feeling that possessed him.
“I wouldn’t believe anyone who told me that I could love like that,” said Prince Andrei. “This is not at all the feeling that I had before.” The whole world is divided for me into two halves: one - she and there is all the happiness of hope, light; the other half is everything where she is not there, there is all despondency and darkness...
“Darkness and gloom,” Pierre repeated, “yes, yes, I understand that.”
– I can’t help but love the world, it’s not my fault. And I'm very happy. You understand me? I know you're happy for me.
“Yes, yes,” Pierre confirmed, looking at his friend with tender and sad eyes. The brighter the fate of Prince Andrei seemed to him, the darker his own seemed.

To get married, the consent of the father was needed, and for this, the next day, Prince Andrei went to his father.
The father, with outward calm but inner anger, accepted his son's message. He could not understand that anyone would want to change life, to introduce something new into it, when life was already ending for him. “If only they would let me live the way I want, and then we would do what we wanted,” the old man said to himself. With his son, however, he used the diplomacy that he used on important occasions. Taking a calm tone, he discussed the whole matter.
Firstly, the marriage was not brilliant in terms of kinship, wealth and nobility. Secondly, Prince Andrei was not in his first youth and was in poor health (the old man was especially careful about this), and she was very young. Thirdly, there was a son whom it was a pity to give to the girl. Fourthly, finally,” said the father, looking mockingly at his son, “I ask you, postpone the matter for a year, go abroad, get treatment, find, as you want, a German for Prince Nikolai, and then, if it’s love, passion, stubbornness, whatever you want, so great, then get married.
“And this is my last word, you know, my last...” the prince finished in a tone that showed that nothing would force him to change his decision.
Prince Andrei clearly saw that the old man hoped that the feeling of him or his future bride would not withstand the test of the year, or that he himself, the old prince, would die by this time, and decided to fulfill his father’s will: to propose and postpone the wedding for a year.
Three weeks after his last evening with the Rostovs, Prince Andrei returned to St. Petersburg.

The next day after her explanation with her mother, Natasha waited the whole day for Bolkonsky, but he did not come. The next, third day the same thing happened. Pierre also did not come, and Natasha, not knowing that Prince Andrei had gone to his father, could not explain his absence.
Three weeks passed like this. Natasha did not want to go anywhere and, like a shadow, idle and sad, she walked from room to room, cried secretly from everyone in the evening and did not appear to her mother in the evenings. She was constantly blushing and irritated. It seemed to her that everyone knew about her disappointment, laughed and felt sorry for her. With all the strength of her inner grief, this vain grief intensified her misfortune.
One day she came to the countess, wanted to tell her something, and suddenly began to cry. Her tears were the tears of an offended child who himself does not know why he is being punished.
The Countess began to calm Natasha down. Natasha, who had been listening at first to her mother’s words, suddenly interrupted her:
- Stop it, mom, I don’t think, and I don’t want to think! So, I traveled and stopped, and stopped...
Her voice trembled, she almost cried, but she recovered and calmly continued: “And I don’t want to get married at all.” And I'm afraid of him; I have now completely, completely calmed down...
The next day after this conversation, Natasha put on that old dress, which she was especially famous for the cheerfulness it brought in the morning, and in the morning she began her old way of life, from which she had fallen behind after the ball. After drinking tea, she went to the hall, which she especially loved for its strong resonance, and began to sing her solfeges (singing exercises). Having finished the first lesson, she stopped in the middle of the hall and repeated one musical phrase that she especially liked. She listened joyfully to the (as if unexpected for her) charm with which these shimmering sounds filled the entire emptiness of the hall and slowly froze, and she suddenly felt cheerful. “It’s good to think about it so much,” she said to herself and began to walk back and forth around the hall, not walking with simple steps on the ringing parquet floor, but at every step shifting from heel (she was wearing her new, favorite shoes) to toe, and just as joyfully as I listen to the sounds of my own voice, listening to this measured clatter of a heel and the creaking of a sock. Passing by the mirror, she looked into it. - "Here I am!" as if the expression on her face when she saw herself spoke. - “Well, that’s good. And I don’t need anyone.”
The footman wanted to enter to clean something in the hall, but she did not let him in, again closing the door behind him, and continued her walk. This morning she returned again to her favorite state of self-love and admiration for herself. - “What a charm this Natasha is!” she said again to herself in the words of some third, collective, male person. “She’s good, she has a voice, she’s young, and she doesn’t bother anyone, just leave her alone.” But no matter how much they left her alone, she could no longer be calm and she immediately felt it.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..2

1. The concept of social stereotype…………………………………………….4

2. Manifestation of stereotypes in the minds and behavior of people…………………..7

3. Properties, functions and types of stereotypes……………………………………..9

4. Mass society and mass behavior………………………………….13

5. Stereotypes of mass behavior………………………………………………………14

5.1. Rumors………………………………………………………………………………..14

5.2. Manners and fashion……………………………………………………………..16

5.3. Mass addictions…………………………………………………….19

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………21

References……………………………………………………………...22

Introduction.

We all live in a world of stereotypes. It is stereotypes that largely determine moral norms and form political, religious and ideological concepts. Behavioral stereotypes are also very diverse and largely determine our behavior, our judgments and attitude towards the environment. Thanks to these stereotypes, we clearly know how to behave in a given case; we know what is bad and what is good; we know who is right and who is wrong. We know, but this does not mean that this is in reality because the stereotypes on which our judgments are based can be formed on erroneous premises or certain, not always justified, conventions.

Stereotypes are an integral element ordinary consciousness. No person is able to independently and creatively respond to all situations encountered in life. A stereotype, which accumulates a certain standardized collective experience and is instilled in an individual in the process of learning and communicating with others, helps him navigate life and in a certain way directs his behavior. However, a stereotype can be either true or false. It can evoke both positive and negative emotions. Its essence is that it expresses the attitude, the attitude of a given social group to a certain phenomenon.

The formation of stereotypes is an obligatory element of our culture, but at the same time the formation of stereotypes also gives rise to a certain conservatism in our activities, including in the process

thinking. Often people are not aware of exactly what reasons influenced the formation of ideas about other people and various social processes and do not realize that these are social stereotypes in the first place.

The problem of social stereotypes is relevant today. There is reason to believe that stereotypes play a decisive role in the masses making political decisions when society is in a state of transition or crisis. Commercial advertising and trademarks are based on the power of stereotypes. Frequent repetition of words and images creates a stereotypical idea of ​​the high quality of a product; this idea takes root in the subconscious and a person no longer critically perceives information about this product. Thus, stereotypes have a fairly strong influence on people’s consciousness and are very widespread, the boundaries of which are difficult to even estimate.

1. The concept of social stereotype.

The term “stereotype” was first introduced into social sciences in the 20s of the twentieth century in the USA, when the need arose to study and explain the laws of the functioning of mass consciousness. The founder of the concept of stereotypical thinking and behavior was the American scientist Walter Lippman. In his work " Public opinion"(1922) W. Lippmann

argued that these are ordered, schematic, culturally determined “pictures of the world” in a person’s head, which save his efforts in perceiving complex social objects and protect his values, positions and rights.

In his work, U. Lippman identified two important, in his opinion, reasons that influence the formation of stereotypes. The first reason is the use of the principle of saving effort, characteristic of everyday human thinking and which is expressed in the fact that people do not strive to react each time in a new way to new facts and phenomena, but try to bring them under existing categories. The second reason is the protection of existing group values.

Since then, a huge number of specific definitions of social stereotype have been proposed. Depending on the theoretical orientation of the author, the relevant aspects of this phenomenon come to the fore.

Thus, T. Shibutani defines a social stereotype as “popular

concept denoting a rough grouping of people in terms of some easily distinguishable characteristic, widely supported

common ideas regarding the properties of these people."

R. Tajouri understands a social stereotype as “a tendency

perceiving subject, easily and quickly perceived person in

affiliation, nationality and profession, and thereby attribute to him qualities that are considered typical of people of this category.”

G. Tezfel summarized the main conclusions of research in the field of social stereotypes:

1) people easily demonstrate a willingness to characterize large human groups (or social categories) with undifferentiated, crude and biased characteristics;

3) social stereotypes can change to some extent depending on social, political or economic changes, but this process occurs extremely slowly;

4) social stereotypes become more distinct (“pronounceable”) and hostile when social tension between groups;

5) they are acquired very early and used by children long before clear ideas about the groups to which they belong arise;

6) Social stereotypes are not a big problem when there is no obvious hostility in group relations, but they are extremely difficult to modify and manage under conditions of significant tension and conflict.

At the end of the 50s, the most popular definition in Western scientific thought was that proposed by the American psychologist and sociologist Kimball Jung. He understood a stereotype as “a false classification concept, which, as a rule, is associated with some social sensory-emotional tones of similarity and difference, approval or condemnation of another group.” After such a view, stereotypes began to be treated as something deliberately false and incorrect. A stereotype has come to be synonymous with an erroneous assessment or preconceived opinion about phenomena or groups. Only with the emergence of a hypothesis

O. Kleinberg began to spread the idea that there is a certain “grain of truth” in stereotypes.

In Russian psychology, until the end of the 50s, the term “stereotype” was not used. Although the problem of studying human behavior patterns has been raised. This was examined most comprehensively by P.A. Sorokin. Without introducing the term “stereotype,” he described the process of their functioning in a sociocultural group. “A number of processes and behaviors are pre-fixed in one form or another and are carried out by the majority of group members.”

The researcher emphasized that “in each group there is a certain order of relationships... This officially group pattern of behavior represents, as it were, the “backbone” of the group, on which other, more detailed patterns of behavior are further derived.” An integral factor of the whole social life Here comes a collective reflex. In a word, he saw all social life in the form of an endless chain reaction. And although “every social group always has “dissidents” in its midst, they very often behave in accordance with “official” norms. Without using the concept of “stereotype of behavior,” P.A. Sorokin practically described the mechanism of their action in sociocultural groups. He also considered the problem of changing behavior patterns, noting that “an instant, simultaneous and identical change in behavior patterns for all members of the group... is almost impossible.”

After the works of P.A. Sorokin to the problem of sustainable forms of behavior for a long time did not apply, and only in the late 50s - early 60s national science A number of works of critical content appeared, which examined the problems of stereotyping and stereotyping. At the same time, for the first time in Russian science, attempts were made to define the concept of “stereotype”. V.A. Yadov understood a stereotype as “sensually colored social images.” I.S. Kon gives the following definition: a stereotype is “prejudiced, i.e. not based on fresh direct assessment each phenomenon, but derived from standardized judgments and expectations, an opinion about the properties of people and phenomena.”

In Soviet literature, the study of the problem of stereotypes is associated with

names Shikhirev P.N., Sherkovin Yu.L., Gadzhiev K.S., Kona I.S., Yadov

V.A., Kondratenko G.M. and others. They have a class approach to the problem of studying stereotypes; in their works, the most common definition of a stereotype is as an “image” or “set of qualities”, as a sufficient

a primitive or emotionally charged idea of ​​reality that inadequately reflects objective processes. However, today the majority of Russian scientists (following Western ones) have begun to approach the phenomenon of stereotype more cautiously, considering the latter mainly comprehensive education and assessing its content not only from the negative side (Ageev V.S., Vasilyeva T.V., Malysheva I.V., Korobov V.K., Stefanenko T.G., Sorokin Yu.A., Yanchuk V.A. . and etc.).

2. The manifestation of stereotypes in the minds and behavior of people.

Stereotypes are formed because we need to generalize information about the people around us: we simplify the picture of the world, making it more understandable. Problems arise when stereotypes are overgeneralized or incorrect.

Stereotypes can operate on both a conscious and unconscious level. For example, negative judgments towards national and racial minorities are usually socially disapproved, and stereotypes of the superiority of races and nations are not expressed at a conscious level. However, this does not mean that they have disappeared altogether. Let's say, arguing for the choice in favor of an applicant for an important position of a representative of their own nationality against a person of another nationality, those who made this choice may sincerely protest against the fact that racial preferences played a decisive role. This will not change the essence of the choice. Let us give examples of similar experiments that demonstrated the role of gender stereotypes.

Subjects were presented with photographs of a “group working on a research project” and asked to guess which member contributed the most to the work. In same-sex groups, the person who sat at the head of the table was more likely to be chosen; the same thing happened in mixed groups where a man sat at the head of the table. However, in a group of three women and two men, where a woman sat at the head of the table, each man was chosen three times more often than all the women combined.

Most stereotypes are stereotypes of gender, age, race, nationality, profession, and social class. Examples are widely known and quite obvious. Stereotypes of appearance are also important for interpersonal interaction (pursed lips - an angry person, a bespectacled person - smart, etc.). An example of an appearance stereotype that operates mainly on an unconscious level is the stereotype “beautiful means good.” It is expressed in the fact that externally more attractive people are attributed positive personal qualities, and less attractive - vices and shortcomings. The effect of this stereotype has been observed since the age of four.

The phenomenon of intragroup bias can also be conditionally attributed to stereotypes. It is expressed in a higher assessment of members of the group to which we ourselves belong, and a lower assessment of members of other groups. The concept of “group” in this case can vary over a very wide range - from residents of one house to residents of one country. The effectiveness of this stereotype is expressed even when membership in a particular group is determined by random factors (school class, fans of the same team).

The stability of stereotypes is ensured, in particular, by the fact that information consistent with the stereotype helps to strengthen it, while information that contradicts it is ignored. Moreover, in the same information one can find confirmation of opposite stereotypes.

How do stereotypes affect behavior and psyche?

White American subjects acted out a job interview situation. Their behavior varied significantly depending on the job applicant's race: If the job applicant was black, interviewers sat further away from him, made less eye contact, ended the conversation more quickly, and made more speech errors. In the next experiment, specially trained imitators interviewed “applicants” (whites only) in a manner that resembled interviewing whites and blacks. Those who were interviewed in the same manner as blacks appeared more nervous and less focused, were more likely to be confused and confused, and were less satisfied with the impression they made on the interviewer.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note cases when stereotypes “do not work.” This happens, first of all, in a situation of close and long-term communication, when people interact not with a representative of their gender or nationality, but with a specific person, and, as already noted, a positive attitude towards a person can coexist with a negative stereotype in relation to a social group, which he represents. However, sometimes consciously declared stereotypes “do not work” even in a situation of superficial contact, as evidenced by the result of a well-known study called the “La Pierre Paradox”.

3. Properties, functions and types of stereotypes.

Exist different kinds stereotypes. In particular, there are

autostereotypes, reflecting people’s ideas about themselves, and heterostereotypes, reflecting ideas about another people, another social group. For example, what is considered a manifestation of prudence among one’s own people, is considered a manifestation of greed among another people. People perceive many stereotypes as models that must be met. Therefore, such fixed ideas have a rather strong influence on people, stimulating in them the formation of character traits that are reflected in the stereotype.

Stereotypes can be individual and social, expressing ideas about an entire group of people. Social stereotypes include, as more specific cases, ethnic, gender, political and a number of other stereotypes.

Stereotypes can also be divided into behavioral stereotypes and mental stereotypes. Stereotypes of behavior are stable, regularly repeated behavior of a sociocultural group and the individuals belonging to it, which depends on the value-normative system functioning in this group. They are in close connection with stereotypes of consciousness. Stereotypes of consciousness, as fixing ideal ideas of a value-normative system, act as the basis for the formation of behavioral stereotypes. Stereotypes of consciousness create models of behavior, stereotypes of behavior introduce these models into life.

When analyzing stereotypes, it is necessary to take into account both the negative and positive psychological consequences of stereotyping. On the one hand, the pattern of judgment about another person derived from a stereotype often acts as a prejudice. Emerging in conditions of a lack of information, a social stereotype often turns out to be false and plays a conservative role, forming erroneous ideas of people about what is happening, deforming the process of interpreting what is happening and the nature of interpersonal interaction. Any social stereotype that turns out to be true in one situation may turn out to be false in another and, therefore, ineffective for solving the problem of orienting an individual in the surrounding social world.

On the other hand, the presence of social stereotypes plays a very important role significant role in social life for the simple reason that without them, in the absence of comprehensive information about what is happening or observed, neither an adequate assessment nor an adequate forecast would be possible. Firstly, a stereotype allows you to sharply reduce the reaction time to a changing reality; secondly, speed up the process of cognition; thirdly, to provide at least some primary basis for orientation in what is happening.

Stereotypes make things easier to understand. Despite simplification and schematization, stereotypes perform a necessary and useful function in the psychological regulation of processes of interpersonal understanding. This turns out to be possible because in a stereotype the volume of true knowledge often exceeds the volume of false knowledge.

As such, the properties of stereotypes have not been sufficiently studied in the works and

Western and domestic researchers. However, in our opinion, it is still possible to identify a number of properties that are most often mentioned in the psychological literature.

Basic properties of a stereotype:

1) Underdeveloped cognitive component;

2) Polarization of assessment (overestimation occurs through an autostereotype, underestimation through a heterostereotype);

3) Rigid fixation of the stereotype, stability, which manifests itself in different situations and is, in the opinion of many researchers, the main

characteristics of the stereotype;

4) Intensity of emotional manifestation;

5) Concentrated expression of the properties of social attitudes (a clear regulator of group behavior).

As for the functions of stereotypes, they have been studied in more detail.

There are a number of classifications, of which the most important, in our opinion, are

are given below.

G. Tezhfel identifies four functions of stereotypes, two of which are implemented at the individual level, two at the group level.

The meaning of the stereotype at the individual level:

– cognitive (selection social information, schematization, simplification);

– value-protective (creation and maintenance of a positive “I-image”).

At the group level:

– ideologizing (formation and maintenance of group ideology,

explaining and justifying the behavior of the group);

– identifying (creating and maintaining a positive group

"We are the image").

The study of the last two functions will allow, according to Tajfel,

create a theory of social stereotypes. He emphasizes that social

Psychology, history, and simply everyday experience have already accumulated a large amount of empirical material indicating that at the group level, social stereotypes actually perform these functions.

German researcher U. Quasthoff identifies the following functions of stereotypes:

– cognitive – generalization (sometimes excessive) when ordering

information – when something striking is noted. For example, when learning a foreign culture in class foreign language it is necessary to replace some stereotypes (regulating the interpretation of speech) with others;

– affective – a certain measure of ethnocentrism in interethnic communication, manifested as the constant highlighting of “one’s own” as opposed to “someone else’s”;

– social – differentiation between “in-group” and “out-group”:

leads to social categorization, to the formation of social structures that are actively oriented towards in everyday life.

Within the framework of linguistic research, stereotypes are interpreted as

special forms of storing knowledge and assessments, i.e. orientation concepts

behavior. Researchers see stereotyping as the core of the mechanism of tradition and the ethnic uniqueness of culture. Mental stereotypes are fixed by language or other semiotic code (for example, visual images). They have:

Cognitive function consisting of generalization during processing

information;

Affective function – opposition between “one’s own” and “alien”;

Social function– differentiation between in-group and out-group, which leads to social categorization and the formation of structures that people focus on in everyday life.

4. Mass society and mass behavior.

The concept of “society” has been sufficiently developed by many philosophers and sociologists, while the concept of “mass society” is relatively new and is used in scientific world quite rare. The term "mass" usually means not just a multitude of people, but "a relatively large number of people, spatially separated and anonymous, responding to similar stimuli, but acting individually, without regard to other people." Bloomer describes a lot of people this way: “It’s not social organization, there are no generally accepted norms and traditions, no established system of rules and rituals, no organized groups, no structure of status roles and more or less permanent leadership. This is an average aggregation of individuals who are divided, disunited, anonymous; from this we can conclude that mass behavior is homogeneous.”

We will call mass behavior the behavior of people that is characteristic only of mass society and has such features as disorganization, lack of structure, and lack of coordination. In addition, an important feature of mass behavior should be considered the individual choice of lines of behavior. If crowd behavior is defined as unstable, episodic and manifests itself only in a social group, then mass behavior manifests itself and is realized as the sum of individual individual actions. Unlike a crowd (which is people gathered in a limited physical space), masses of people are scattered; in a mass of people there is no constant and conscious contact of one person with another.

According to this concept, masses of people cannot commit joint destructive actions and interact like a crowd. Collective behavior in mass society is different in that a large number of people act individually and not as part of a group, but, nevertheless, their actions are unidirectional and are capable of creating significant social change. The exodus of refugees from the former republics of the USSR, emigration, mass demand for certain goods, mass hobbies of young people - these are vivid examples of mass behavior in modern society.

5. Stereotypes of mass behavior.

A rumor is a message quickly spreading through informal channels, which is based on a genuine fact, but which differs in content from this fact and carries a connotation of unreality and conjecture. It must be said that rumors can

spread in any society, but only in mass society they

are the most characteristic feature social interactions. Many researchers have noted that most of our informal conversations consist of rumors. In every conversation with neighbors, employees, or simply with people who are not indifferent to the fate of Russia, government affairs, or the problems of Russian art, rumors are inevitably discussed, which contributes to their spread. At the same time, people are not satisfied with discussing genuine facts, especially those disseminated through official channels of information. In the course of perceiving and assimilating such information, people are not interested in the truth of the rumor, but only in its credibility. However, most people tend to internalize and spread the most implausible rumors, believing that “there is no smoke without fire.” People's desire to know the details of events that are significant to them is the basis for the origin of rumors.

The consequences of exposure to rumors in mass society can be very great. Thus, a rumor can undermine the reputation of a political figure, present a highly moral act as immoral, discredit any activity, create or, conversely, destroy positive image organization, product or service. It is the high degree of influence of rumors on political life and on certain parts of the market environment that determines the urgent need to study rumors and use them in managing the institutional and market environment of the organization.

Determining the mechanism of action of rumors, American researchers

G. Allport and L. Postman in their work “Psychology of Hearing” note that

Most rumors are born not during an interesting and meaningful conversation, but due to the desire to hear piquant or unusual news. A person is more likely to perceive and believe a rumor if his expectations about the subject of the rumor are met, such as dislike, or removed emotional stress. Thus, people who have a pro-communist political orientation, dislike democratic leaders, and are dissatisfied with changes in society will remember, repeat, and spread rumors that disgrace and discredit their political rivals and their actions. The media can easily create or support these rumors by, for example, making controversial or unverified assumptions. Such actions are the basis for building or, conversely, eroding the image of a politician, party or movement in the political environment. In the market sphere, similar actions are taken in relation to the image of a company, activity or product.

During the course of transmission and dissemination, rumors constantly change and

unconsciously distorted by people in the direction of maintaining their own positions. Members of mass society uncritically perceive rumors and believe them if they are part of their system of ideas, beliefs, or if they emotionally explain the nature of social phenomena. Examples of such rumors include the selection of “persons of Caucasian nationality” from members of society, constantly renewed assessment of the activities of individual political leaders, etc.

5.2. Manners and fashion.

We will call manners simple in content, short-lived variations and features of speech, clothing, furnishings or behavior of people. Manners do not usually extend to large groups of people, very

often they characterize the behavior of an individual.

Fashion is similar to manners, but is more complex

internal structure is a social phenomenon whose changes do not occur so quickly. In relation to fashion phenomena they usually say: “That’s the way it is.” Evaluation of other, “unfashionable” samples has a tinge of disdain, expresses ridicule, their demonstration is inappropriate and undesirable. The development of fashion resembles a movement in a spiral - from time to time fashion returns to previous, previously rejected patterns. Every time fashion dictates the “correct” style of clothing, household items, etc.

Even a cursory glance at fashion in any society is enough to understand that adherence to fashion standards varies among different social groups. As a rule, representatives of the elite and accompanying layers lay claim to the so-called “high” fashion, strict adherence to which requires big money or other valuables. Other strata of mass society either imitate high fashion or develop their own designs, which are considered lower in aesthetic terms by the higher social strata. However, this does not mean that fashion examples are necessarily created in the elite strata. Very often, a fashionable piece from the lower social strata, after some modification, is accepted by the elite and the whole society. Thus, fashion acts as a regulator of behavior only in societies with a developed class system. In homogeneous, undifferentiated societies

division on the basis of fashion does not occur as long as all excesses, decorations and features of clothing, furnishings and behavior are valued in themselves, exclusively according to the canons of convenience and beauty.

Fashion can extend to almost all aspects of the life of a society or large social group - it affects everyday behavior, art, literature, philosophy and even areas scientific activity, but most often fashion patterns are followed in clothing, jewelry and the interior design of the home.

Fashion reflects the dominant interests and motives existing in society in this moment time and further developed by institutes of production and business. For example, in the 18th century. carefully designed examples of clothing, fancy decorations, manners, architectural excesses, literary works led to the emergence of special styles, or aesthetic trends, called “Baroque” and “Victorian style.” Fashion reacts quite sensitively to changes in tastes, attitudes and significant social values. Thus, at present, fashion reflects the desire to smooth out gender differences, which is most often manifested in clothing (heavy

women's boots similar to men's women's trousers, bright colors of men's clothing, etc.). It is noted that in democratic societies it is emphasized

freedom to choose a style direction, while societies with rigid political systems are characterized by conservatism in clothing and a lack of alternatives in choosing fashion trends, etc.

The study of the social role of fashion in the life of modern society has shown that fashion is aimed at constantly stimulating consumption, constantly changing a certain category of goods. Since expanded consumption is the basis of a market economy, many market structures stimulate the development of fashion and contribute to the creation of new style, “fashionable” trends. The result of rapid changes in fashion is increased consumption of certain categories of fashion products, usually before they are worn out or otherwise used.

Unfortunately, very few in-depth studies are devoted to the problem of the influence of fashion on the behavior of members of mass society. According to one point of view, it is believed that fashion arises, develops and spreads due to its influence on the unconscious, i.e. Here it is necessary to take into account emotional needs and the influence of mental impulses. And trendsetters only catch and effectively use the directions of these needs. However, recent research shows that the role of trendsetters is actually somewhat greater. Fashion designers, designers, artists and other fashion creators, who have correctly determined the direction of changes in the attitudes of individual social classes, large groups and strata, and gender and age categories, are able to significantly control the process of development and spread of fashion, establish new style directions and even change the aesthetic norms accepted in society. society. In fact, they can control certain aspects of people's behavior by creating original product designs and skillfully distributing them through various media channels. Having the ability to influence changes in fashion, many organizations and firms that produce products and services are able to predict future changes in the production process and, as a result, adapt to market conditions.

5.3. Mass addictions.

Mass addictions can confidently be attributed to quickly spreading, induced, contagious types of behavior in mass society. By their nature they are close to panic. But if the basis, the essence of panic is flight from danger, then mass addictions represent the desire to satisfy a wide variety of aspirations and desires.

As N. Smelser notes, mass addictions can be frivolous (aerobics, lotteries, collective need for information about UFOs and aliens) or serious (political addictions to a certain leader or political movement, various mass manifestations of patriotism); they can be economic (desire to acquire MMM shares), political (mass support for democrats or patriots in Russia), expressive (dance clubs, mass passion for music), religious (passion for any religious movement), as well as other types.

As a rule, the development of mass addictions goes through several stages.

1. The emergence of interest in a certain subject or phenomenon at the level of small aggregations. Since mass consciousness by its nature is individual and not group in nature, there must be a phenomenon of coincidence of interests among individual members of mass society.

2. Demonstration of positive aspects associated with the subject or phenomenon of interest (filling leisure time, tangible benefits, positive effects on health, miracles associated with religious or mystical actions, etc.).

3. Spreading the addiction to reach large numbers of people through various channels mass communications(conversations, conversations with the public, media, etc.).

Very often, mass addictions are based on people’s desire to get rich quickly. This causes outbreaks of mass interest and

follow-up actions regarding various lotteries (for example, Lotto-

million, “Russian Lotto”, etc.), competitions with prizes (“Field of Miracles”, “Guess the Melody”, etc.). The presence of such predilections is used in advertising activities and by image makers to form the image of companies, streamline the sales market, promote goods and achieve other organizational goals.

It should be noted that mass addictions, as a rule, are short-lived and, moreover, spread within certain social strata or are limited to certain subcultures. Because of this, mass addictions in extremely rare cases cover the entire society, being limited to a certain part of the population.

The extreme form of manifestation of mass addictions should be considered

mass hysteria. It represents certain forms of irrational, unpredictable behavior or manifestations of blind faith.

Typically this social phenomenon is relatively short-lived and in degree

manifestations resembles the crowd phenomenon. An example is

the behavior of fans of pop stars who pursue their idols; fans of a football team who riot in various places without direct contact with each other; nationalists who show hatred towards certain ethnic groups, etc.

Conclusion.

A social stereotype (from the Greek stereos - solid, typos - imprint) is a stable, categorical and extremely simplified idea (opinion, judgment) about a phenomenon or group, widespread in a given social environment.

The existence of stereotypes is dual and contradictory. On the one hand, stereotypes significantly simplify the processes of cognition and creativity, allowing the widespread use of existing knowledge and skills, which represent a complex set of stereotypes, and on the other hand, they limit our ability to learn new, emerging

beyond the usual concepts or contrary to them.

The process of stereotyping in itself is neither bad nor good; it performs objectively required function, allowing you to quickly and reliably categorize and simplify the social environment of an individual, and viewing social stereotypes only from the negative side is, at least, not objective.

Stereotypes influence the way information flows and is selected (for example, the most favorable information about an ingroup is usually remembered, and the most unfavorable information about an outgroup).

Stereotypes create expectations of certain behavior from others, and individuals unwittingly try to confirm these expectations.

Stereotypes produce predictions that tend to be confirmed (because people unwittingly “select” from other people’s behaviors that agree with the stereotypes).

The stereotype is always far from own experience. In modern society, the main source of stereotypes is increasingly becoming appropriately selected media messages.

The upbringing and self-education of a person largely comes down to the gradual formation of a readiness to respond to something properly - in other words, to the creation of attitudes, patterns of behavior useful for a person and society. Already in early age parents consciously and unconsciously influence behavior patterns: “Don’t cry - you’re a man,” “Don’t get dirty - you’re a girl.” The child receives standards of good / evil, beautiful / ugly, good / bad. And by the age when self-awareness begins, in our psyche there are already many entrenched feelings, opinions, views, attitudes that influence the assimilation new information, and on the attitude towards the environment. Being sometimes unconscious, they act with enormous force on a person, forcing him to perceive the world and react to it in the spirit of “established cliches” learned from childhood. (L.D. Stolyarenko)

According to a study by Moscow scientists, the stereotypical image of a Russian person among other nationalities is something like this: a Russian is simple-minded, inexperienced, not very educated, and not at all cunning, devoid of any deceit in his actions. The Christian foundations of spirituality are also characteristic: conciliarity and love as compassion, mercy, pity, sacrifice, in which another is endowed with unconditional value as a creation of God (A.N. Lebedev-Lyubimov).

What was dramatic in 1930s America was that citizens had strong stereotypes about Asians. Investigating this problem, Richard LaPierre sent letters to 251 restaurants and hotels in 1934 asking whether the owners would accept a Chinese guest. Among the 128 responses, there was a 92 percent refusal rate, with only one owner agreeing. However, six months before this, La Pierre had already visited these establishments with a Chinese couple, and they were accepted everywhere except one place.

Since people don't do what they say they do, it's not surprising that attempts to change behavior by changing stereotypes often come to nothing. Warnings about the dangers of smoking have little effect on those who smoke. Many people want numbing violence removed from their TV screens, but they watch it as often as ever. Appeals to "healthy driving" habits prevent speeding to a lesser extent than speed limits and the introduction of expressways.

The result that people say not always what they do has prompted psychologists to search for an answer to why this happens? Another situation: if you ask a believer whether he will go to church next Sunday. The weather, the topic of the sermon and the well-being of the believer will influence his decision. But religious stereotypes make it possible to fairly accurately predict the general direction of human behavior.

Result: The influence of stereotypes on behavior becomes more pronounced when we look at ongoing or average behavior than when we look at individual actions.

Our stereotypes often lie dormant while we act automatically without considering them. For example, familiar scripts are activated by people without analyzing what they are doing. People automatically say "Hello" to those they meet. To the question: “How are you doing?”, they answer “Fine!” or “Nothing” even if not everything is so good. Such actions have adaptive value. This frees up resources to address more important issues. In unusual situations, people's behavior is less automatic. In the absence of scripts, a person thinks before doing.

Many researchers of stereotypes believe that they can be easily imposed through the media. In this case, the formation of a stereotype goes through several stages. In this case, as a result of special psychological manipulations, a complex phenomenon is reduced to some simplified and understandable scheme.

Some American psychologists call three stages in the formation of stereotypes: “alignment,” “strengthening,” and “assimilation.” First, a complex phenomenon or object is reduced to several well-known features, and then these features are given special significance in comparison with those that they had as part of the whole. After this, “alignment” and “strengthening”, the features of an object or phenomenon, are selected and an image is constructed that has a special psychological meaning for the individual.

Stereotypes and prejudices may be prerequisites for intolerance, hostility and discrimination and enhance the influence of these processes in society. But it would be naive to think that stereotypes and prejudices can be removed through psychological surgery. Prejudice is not a disease. They are needed for orientation, mediation of world perspectives and place in society; they are prerequisites for communication and barriers to understanding.

CONCLUSIONS FOR CHAPTER 1

Firstly: indeed, the question itself of why a person purchases a product: due to an initial need or under the influence of a stereotype imposed on us, for example, by advertising, is quite complex.

The desire to imitate idols, to be “no worse than other people,” to be original, to stand out from the crowd, etc. is one of the main “guides” of modern consumer behavior. Such consumers do not need advertised products, but their images and brands. And this is a natural manifestation of the essence of the psychology of the modern consumer, which in a certain way also reflects the essence of personality psychology in general. Our needs do not exist on their own; they are inextricably linked with an object that can satisfy them. Moreover, a need is often recognized only when an object for its satisfaction appears.

Secondly: consumer motives, like human needs themselves, are complex and diverse. They can be strong and weak, permanent and temporary, positive and negative. It is not difficult to see that the motives of assimilation and fashion, on the one hand, and the motives of self-affirmation, on the other, represent a unity of opposites.

Thirdly: the behavioral characteristics of the domestic consumer are now fundamentally divided into consumers with “post-Soviet” and new, “market” psychology. It can be said that in many ways the characteristics of the domestic consumer are associated with the remnants in the mass consciousness of cultural, behavioral, and economic stereotypes of the previous social system.

Fourthly: we have defined the concept of a social stereotype and that they are shared by a significant number of people, which generally contributes to their rooting. Stereotypes can change over time, but their bearers often find it difficult to get rid of internalized ideas. And in order to understand the phenomenon of the stereotype and those dedicated to it Scientific research, it is necessary, first of all, to keep in mind that there are two points of view on their nature: 1) stereotypes are a product of social connections and relationships; 2) stereotypes are also individual, cognitive formations.

Fifth: Without any doubt, the role of stereotypes in advertising is great. But for the psychology of advertising how they grew scientific knowledge It is equally important to determine the meaning of a stereotype in the system of psychological concepts that describe human thinking and behavior, to determine how it relates to needs and motives. Otherwise, the idea may arise that by managing stereotypes and influencing the consumer with their help, an advertiser can sell anything, regardless of the quality of the product and the objective need for it.

Stereotypes of female behavior

In order for a girl to learn to be a woman, first of all, her mother must be a woman. And second important condition– a father who is next to his mother, a real woman, must be a real man.

This is truly a difficult task, especially in the modern world.

It's good to talk about real women, but where are they?

Mom must be a real woman who has found, revealed and leads a real man. The daughter sees their relationship, and the image of a real man is imprinted in her brain. Now she can follow in her mother’s footsteps and create a harmonious family.

In our strange times, when women very often do not understand what it means to be a woman and society is designed for sick destructive men, everything is subordinated to the power of money.

This is a society where only what gives money is taken into account, and everything else can be killed, destroyed, or simply denied and ridiculed. Growing up in such an environment, women begin to compete with men. They see no other way.

First of all, they agreed that a woman is an inferior being. They are trying to achieve equality with men in this world. This can be achieved in two ways:

1. Become a mother who tells everyone everything and does everything.

2. Become a bad man.

There is no other way for a woman, many believe.

However, there is another way - you can become a real woman. Then there will be no need to compete with men and receive blows from them, and there will be no need to play other negative female roles.

Now let's look at the main types of female behavior in modern society. Often women feel that they are successful in these roles, but it is important to remember that you are not! Only when you are true, you feel good and everything goes well.

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