Customs business in the 16th - 17th centuries. Customs business in the 16th - 17th centuries The peculiarity of Russian trade during this period was that, on the one hand, the state had huge reserves of raw materials, on the other hand, there was no even meager industrial

A unified Russian state emerged towards the end of the 15th century, simultaneously with England and France. If in the West the formation of the state occurred simultaneously with the formation of the market and the separation of powers, then in Russia this was dictated exclusively by external factors: the Horde, the development of trade, etc.

Ivan the Terrible believed that all his subjects were slaves, considering only the Turkish Sultan his equal. Ivan the Terrible considered European kings to be constables. Russia is the Tsar's biggest fiefdom.

Ivan the Terrible in his reign relied on a group of nobles and governors.

In the 50s of the 16th century, Ivan the Terrible tried to introduce local government bodies, headed by zemstvo elders. At the same time, industry bodies were established in the center. But since there was no experience of self-government, the ventures failed.

Ivan the Terrible suspected that he would be demoted to the rank Queen of England. The essence of despotism and the emergence of the Oprichnina is imagining oneself as a dictator.

Ref.* In Russia, for every boyar there were 3 nobles, the same number of officials and 10-15 commoners.*

Under Ivan the Terrible, Tver and Novgorod were destroyed.

As a result of the Oprichnina, the most active part of the country was destroyed. The terrible consequences of the Oprichnina are the joining of many to the oprichniki. Due to the weakening of the country's forces as a result of the Oprichnina, Russia lost the Levon War in 1549ᴦ. In 1551ᴦ. raid of the Crimean Khan.

Autocracy was the only construction of the country.

In 1598ᴦ. After the death of the son of Ivan the Terrible, the disintegration of the country begins. Boris Godunov tried to stop this process.

In 1601-604, there was famine in Russia due to crop failures due to incessant rains; These disasters marked the beginning of the Time of Troubles. After the death of Boris Godunov in 1605ᴦ. the turmoil intensifies.

In 1610ᴦ. Polish prince Vladislav was called to the throne, but he refused to accept Christianity.

in 1612ᴦ. 2 militias were created and the interventionists were expelled from Moscow. Then Mikhail Romanov would be elected to the throne, which would mark the beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne.

In 1550ᴦ. carried out military reform. In Russia, the control system for all armed forces was centralized. Localism was limited. Streltsy troops were created. The Cossack units that formed on the Don were supposed to submit to the supreme authority. In Russia, the Cossacks were legally free to make decisions, but in fact they were dependent on Moscow.

Under the young tsar, a circle of especially close associates formed (the Chosen Rada). For 13 years, the Elected Rada ruled the country. The elected Rada testified to a compromise between layers of the state.

1 Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549ᴦ. The fact of the convocation indicated that Russia was turning from an early feudal monarchy into an estate-representative one. Ivan the Terrible needed the support of various classes, especially in the fight against boyar tyranny. The Zemsky Sobor helped maneuver state power between the nobility and the boyars. The Zemsky Sobor was convened as needed by the tsar and did not limit his power.

Many of the king's enterprises aroused resistance from the great nobility. It was precisely against the great nobility that the king struck the first blow. To defeat the opposition, Ivan the Terrible in 1564ᴦ. left Moscow for Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, where he began to create Oprichnina (oprich (Old Russian) - in addition).

In January 1565ᴦ. Two Tsar's messengers arrived in Moscow and read out two of his decrees. In the first, Ivan the Terrible accused the boyars of treason; He is loyal to the townspeople. As a result of the intrigues of his enemies, Ivan the Terrible takes off the rigals of power, as stated in the document.

Moscow residents demanded that the boyars and clergy persuade the tsar to return to the throne. A little later, the Moscow delegation arrived in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. Ivan the Terrible set a condition: he would execute traitors at his own discretion. Russia will be divided into two parts: the Oprichnina (the personal territory of Ivan the Terrible) and the zemstvo part.

Everyone who lived on the territory of the Oprichnina, but were not oprichniki, was evicted.

In 1570ᴦ. Novgorod suffered, becoming a victim of terror.

Oprichnina brought serfdom closer.

Many guardsmen, who received enormous wealth, began to be burdened by the policies of Ivan the Terrible, but the apparatus of investigation and denunciation did its job - many guardsmen were executed. During the Oprichnina, according to researchers, 2000-3000 people were killed. The guardsmen, who had been plundering their own people for several years, were unable to protect them from the raid of Khan Davlet Giray in 1571, who burned Moscow.

Ivan the Terrible urgently strengthened the southern borders with zemstvo troops, which in 1572ᴦ. defeated the superior troops of Davlet Giray, who made a second attempt to raid Russian lands. In 1552ᴦ. The Kazan Khanate was conquered, and in 1556ᴦ. - Astrakhan. In those years, she voluntarily became part of the Russian state. The territories of the North also voluntarily entered. Caucasus.

In 1558ᴦ. The Levon War for access to the Baltic Sea began (it was fought for 25 years, being lost by Russia). Only heroic defense Pskov, which pinned down and inflicted huge losses on the Polish troops, led to a relaxation of the military treaty. During the defense, 30,000 Pskov residents opposed the 150,000 Polish army.

Since 1582ᴦ. The conquest of Siberia begins, starting with Ermak's campaign, which lasted 70 years. If the Americans, when expanding the territory of their country, destroyed the indigenous population of America - the Indians, then the Russian conquerors of Siberia, apart from a few skirmishes, peacefully coexisted with the indigenous inhabitants of Siberia, passing on their knowledge to them, incl. and the culture of agriculture, since they still lived in a primitive system.

16th century The history of Russia is rich in events. Territories of the former Kievan Rus, which were actively divided throughout the 14th-16th centuries, were now completely divided, and there were no free lands left in Russia. All territories are completely dependent on Muscovite Rus' or Lithuania; the princes of the appanages were members of the Moscow grand ducal family.

Russia at the beginning of the 16th century.

Culture

In the 16th century. The culture of Rus' developed especially brightly in such areas as painting, architecture, and literature. Painting was represented by iconography. In architecture, in addition to wood, it continued. Churches and temples were erected. The tent style is common. Various fortifications were built. In the literature, the most relevant topics were related to changes in political life(with the emergence of autocracy). A 12-volume edition of Macarius appeared - a collection of popular works for home reading. “Domostroy” was written - a collection of tips and rules. They were printed (“Apostle” is the first precisely dated one), which marked the beginning of book printing in Russia.

The 16th – 17th centuries are a period of the formation and strengthening of a unified Russian state, the formation of a single national economic mechanism and a special view of the market aspects of life. With the advent of centralizing aspirations came new and at the same time traditional views on the supreme power and the economy of the state. Russian sovereigns begin to consider their activities, their tasks and their very position in the state in a special way.

During this period of history, statesmen of wide scope and reformers of the political, economic and social life of Russia appeared. Under the influence of urgent economic needs, the old orders in government and everyday life, in the religious institutions of local church organizations and in cultural life begin to break down.

The unification processes strengthened the autocracy. Further centralization of state power reduced the social, and therefore the political, significance of the upper Russian class (aristocracy).

The intensifying class struggle and confrontation within the feudal class between the old boyars and the rising nobility required strengthening of the centralized government controlled. After the introduction of citizenship relations into law, all classes were equalized in the face of state power. At the same time, the economic basis of subject relations was the predominance of state ownership of land. In Russia, noted V.O. Klyuchevsky, the tsar was a kind of patrimonial owner. The whole country for him is property, with which he acts as a rightful owner. The number of princes, boyars and other patrimonial lords was constantly declining: Ivan IV reduced their share in economic relations in the country to a minimum. The decisive blow to private land ownership was dealt by the institution of the oprichnina. From an economic point of view, the oprichnina was characterized by the allocation of significant territories in the west, north and south of the country to a special sovereign inheritance. These territories were declared the personal possessions of the king. This means that all private owners in the oprichnina lands had to either recognize the sovereign rights of the tsar or be subject to liquidation, and their property was confiscated. The large estates of princes and boyars were divided into small estates and distributed to the nobles for the sovereign's service as hereditary possession, but not as property. Thus, the power of appanage princes and boyars was destroyed, and the position of service landowners - nobles under the rule of the autocratic tsar - was strengthened.

The territory on which the Russian centralized state was formed was mainly located in the zone of the world's largest forests, wetlands with relatively small thermal resources, podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils. The country's climate is predominantly continental, with a sharp drop in temperature as you move towards the east. Characteristic feature climate there was always a lack of precipitation, falling mainly within two to three months, which in grain-growing areas led to drought, which affected the country approximately once every three years. Early frosts and snow cover significantly narrowed the period suitable for agricultural work. The Russian peasant had at his disposal no more than 130 working days during the year, and 30 of them were spent on haymaking. Being under severe time pressure, during this time the Russian peasant had to actually invest in the land such a volume of labor that the European peasant, who was in more favorable conditions, it was difficult to even imagine. In practice, this meant that the Russian peasant had to work almost without sleep or rest, day and night, using the labor of all family members - children, old people, women in men's jobs, etc. The peasant in Western Europe, neither in the Middle Ages nor in modern times, required such effort. The period convenient for agricultural work lasts 8–9 months. Relatively low, for the Slavs, productivity ( with arable farming system) was also associated with the poor quality of land fertilization, which was determined by the weak base of cattle breeding in the main territory of Russia. Due to the lack of feed and a shortage of hay, the Russian peasant had small, weak and unproductive livestock, and his mortality was also high. The peasant economy had extremely limited opportunities for the production of marketable agricultural products, and the need for constant participation in agricultural production of almost all the working hands of the peasant family determined the narrowness of the labor market, the seasonal nature of the activities of numerous industrial establishments, their location closer to labor resources, as well as the specifics of production.

Great importance had a handicraft industry, since 60% of its products were exported. But neither export nor production for the local market provided the opportunity for rapid capital accumulation. Hence the slow development of industrial capitalism and the roots of the traditional intervention of the Russian state in the sphere of economic organization. Since all this required funds, with the help of the state mechanism a certain share of the total surplus product was constantly withdrawn.

Relatively low yields and the limited size of peasant arable land had the most significant impact on the formation of a certain type of statehood, the development of the economy, culture, and social relations. The relatively short summer, short growing season, the possibility of hail and other unfavorable natural phenomena required superconcentration of efforts during a certain period, but in late autumn and winter the pace of work slowed down. V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Russian people knew that nature allowed him little convenient time for agricultural work and that the short Great Russian summer could be shortened by unexpected bad weather. This forced the Great Russian peasant to hurry, to work hard in order to do a lot in a short time and get out of the field just in time, and then remain idle throughout the fall and winter. Thus, the Great Russian became accustomed to excessive short-term strain of his strength, got used to working quickly, feverishly and quickly, and then resting during the forced autumn and winter idleness. Not a single people in Europe is capable of such intense labor for a short time as a Great Russian can develop: but nowhere in Europe, it seems, will we find such an unaccustomed attitude to even, moderate and measured, constant work.” Russian work habits also differ from labor habits of Asian peoples: rice growing, in particular, requires regularity and scrupulousness. The harsh climate is conducive to collective farming. Strong communal traditions have developed in Russia, which became an obstacle to the development of private ownership of land by peasants even after the abolition of serfdom. Naturally, over the centuries, ideas about the community as highest value . The traditional way of life and the ritual of seasonal work was saving for the majority of peasants; acceptable and familiar.

In the 16th century, Moscow became the center of ruble issuance, the center of the Russian monetary world. In Moscow, money received the status of a state idea and became an instrument of ideology (it was used to solve political and geopolitical problems). The ruble enjoyed trust in Russian society, and this meant trust in the authorities. When collecting lands, the ruble was one of the main and effective tools for building a unified state. The Moscow coin included 80-90 silver spools. Contained 220 money or 30g kuna. One ruble of the 14th century, early 15th century = 500 rubles of 1913. The right to purchase currency was exclusively with the Moscow government, which allowed the circulation of foreign coins in the country, but they did not become leading, as in Novgorod (1410). The system of economic development of the state was formed on the basis of the internal market and, accordingly, not without the Russian ruble. An effective method for this was the reorientation in foreign trade and fiscal policy of the Moscow government, which made trade with the East the main focus. The balance of eastern trade (different from western) was not active; but the effect was different... The Russians sold their products to the East and bought consumer goods and useful materials for the production sector. Therefore, the eastern direction did not harm the monetary independence of the state. The consequence of friendship with the East was the transition to the Eastern (Greek) chronology (late 14th - early 15th centuries). The tax reform has changed in Russia. The direct tax - Moscow plow - was more objective and gentle. The size of the plow depended on the quality of the object and the subject. In the 16th century Russia has switched to door-to-door cheating. And the Moscow plow began to be subdivided into small salary units (howl, share), between which a salary was spread that fell on a whole plow (Klyuchevsky: very favorable taxation) Moreover, on the Tsylmi River, a tributary of the Pechora, sebum placers were discovered in 1391!!! 16th century ruble = 16 shillings and 16 pence. And it was already 94 times more expensive than the ruble of 1913 (a house in the 16th century, for example, cost 3 rubles). State income was 1.5 million rubles (Fletcher’s data).

Welfare example: owning a field, that is, a space of land that one person could cultivate with the help of one horse, the peasant sowed from 2.5 to 3.5 quarters of rye and the same amount of oats. With a good harvest, he received an income of 3 to 5 rubles a year. Taxes in monetary terms since 1555: from 75 kopecks to 1 ruble. The richest people in Russia are the Stroganovs, with a fortune of 300 thousand rubles without land holdings. They had 10 thousand hired workers. The treasury was paid from 40 to 200 thousand rubles in the form of tax deductions (14-17 centuries).

About literacy....The level of literacy among the population varied. Elementary literacy was common among townspeople and peasants. The latter had a literacy rate of 15-35%. Literacy was higher among the clergy, merchants, and nobility. Literacy was taught in private schools, which were usually run by people of clergy. For completing the course they paid “porridge and hryvnia money.” In a number of schools, in addition to teaching literacy and reading directly, they studied grammar and arithmetic. In this regard, the first textbooks on grammar ("Conversation about teaching literacy") and arithmetic ("Numeric numeracy") appear. On the development of education in the 16th century. The fact of the creation of libraries at large monasteries is also evidenced. A large library (not found until now) was in royal palace. Handwritten books belonged to private individuals of various categories, including ordinary townspeople and peasants.

About the sovereign... The most beloved and respected sovereign among the people was Ivan Vasilyevich (Grozny). The Chronicle says: " people cried at his death". "He was strict, but fair." He had the full support of the middle and lower classes of Russian society. During the reign of the Terrible Tsar, the country's population grew by 30-50%! (Approximately 3,000 thousand people were sentenced to death during the same time (over 50 years). This is largely his merit in the establishment of the patriarchate in Rus'. (under his son Fyodor Ioannovich on January 26, 1589).

In the 16th century, Ivan Vasilyevich attempted to solve the problem of centralization by force... As a result, the Russian Tsar introduced autocratic rule in Russia with unlimited power of the monarch, relying, at the same time, on the local nobility and people. The entire subsequent period, right up to the absolutism of Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov, the progressive development of Russian statehood was determined by the search for ways to strengthen strong royal power, capable of maintaining the unity of the state and ensuring its stable development. Here is the formula for this period of time: The state is a people's union, governed by the supreme power (conceived and developed by Metropolitan Macarius 1482-1563). The support for everything was a social contract based on the principle compulsory service. Its essence was that the treasury took upon itself the obligation to provide the estates with everything “necessary” for life and service... The object of the agreement was land... Therefore, state ownership of the land and its subsoil was placed at the head of all traditional norms and orders. Thus, state property became the basis and support of autocratic orders. Councils are a truly popular, special form of government in Russia. The main task of the Councils was the possibility of establishing nationwide support for the tsarist government and its leaders...

The ideology of the Russian Middle Ages, Russian antiquity is completed by the ideological postulates of the autocrats of the Romanov dynasty (17th century).

In the first half of the 17th century, the supreme power “separated and shared its understanding of the sovereign and zemstvo affairs from their zemstvo council...” The stabilization of economic and political activity in the country under Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1596-1645), allowed the tsar’s “political strategists” to reduce the importance cathedrals (for the authorities and all the people). Since the 30s of the 17th century, they (the councils) have become, in fact, meetings of the government with its own agents. From now on, they are not seated by representatives of the land (society), but by service bearers... The Russian government was getting rid of tutelage... For example, in the 40s of the 17th century, the royal office was created... everyone began to, secretly, obey it orders...According to the apt expression of Academician M.M. Bogoslovsky, Russian autocracy evolved from zemstvo to bureaucratic (From the history of supreme power in Russia. Petrograd, 1918). The movement towards absolutism begins... Since the second half of the 17th century, a state vertical management system has been formed (2 orders of supreme management: personal and bureaucratic). This meant the displacement of elected officials in local government... Personal-bureaucratic management was much more maneuverable and universal... Moreover, it was more effective. For example, the Counting Order united for the first time financial management country...His decrees had the force of law...Thus, the task of the supreme power becomes guardianship over the people's life and creative influence on it. The goal is to create an all-Russian (imperial) monarchy. The Code of 1649 introduced the concept of state interest, to which all private and public interests must be subordinated.

For pure absolutism, to which Russia has rushed, a new conceptual position of power is established (which provided for the abandonment of the old, church concept, since the church has ceased to be an arbiter in Russian society - the “resignation” of church ideology). And so, the Tsar should have stood not at the head of the government administration, but outside of it and above it... as God’s anointed one - the source of all life in Russia. The royal power should be over everything and everyone!!! Signs of autocracy: the system of power did not establish a clear relationship between law, legality and autocracy. The concept of autocracy was precisely based on the fact that the separation of powers was never clearly established. The main support of the supreme power from the third half of the 17th century became the noble bureaucracy and the institution of serfdom... The Duma lost its former significance... The Church became a “tool” in the hands of the autocracy... There is an opinion that the church schism (1650-1660s gg) was artificially caused by the authorities: the tsar set the Boyar Duma against the church... By the way, the idea Russian Empire belonged to Patriarch Nikon...The split could have been a kind of overcoming the crisis of the national-state idea......After the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1676), the principle of serving the autocratic sovereign was revived, received new acceleration and development... In general, Russian the state was a system of political balance (an example for all of Europe). The Russian government, during a massive offensive, solved the problem of political centralization of state life. At the same time, our ancestors achieved goals in creative and economic activities to improve the people's well-being (political unification was secured economically...)

The main sources of the new concept were the successful implementation of the government course on the development of administrative service technology and theories of state and National economy, the creation of large-scale production (in particular, heavy industry), based on state orders, state subsidies, profitable concessions provided by labor... The political and economic development of Russia in the 17th century was ensured by the rapid expansion of the borders of the state and the population of the country (Russia included the continental part of Asia, bounded in the North by the Arctic Ocean, and in the East by the Pacific...

Thoughts and opinions.

Ancient Rus'(Dnieper state)

Russia in the 16th century

XVII century in the history of Russia

9.1. Russia in the 16th century

Completing the merger

In the 16th century Vasily III(1505-1533) the unification of the Russian principalities-lands around Moscow was completed.

In 1510, Pskov was annexed to the Russian state, in 1514. Smolensk, previously captured by Lithuanian feudal lords, was returned; in 1521, the Ryazan principality, which had actually long been subordinate to Moscow, was annexed. Thus, all the principalities and lands of Rus' were united into one state, which, in addition to the Russians, included other peoples: Udmurts, Mordovians, Karelians, Komi, etc. In terms of population composition, the Russian centralized state was multinational.

The international importance of the Russian state has grown and its defense capability has strengthened. During the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III, Moscow received numerous ambassadors from foreign states and sovereigns - the German emperor, the Hungarian king, the king of Denmark, the Venetian Doge, the Turkish Sultan, etc.

Board of Elena Glinskaya

After the death of Vasily III, the grand-ducal throne was taken by Ivan IV (1530-1584). But since he was only three years old, the state was ruled by his mother, the Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya. She did not rule for long, but under her certain reforms were carried out aimed at centralizing the state, including a ban on the purchase of land from service people, strengthening control over the growth of monastic land ownership and reducing the tax and judicial immunity of the church. The monetary reform of 1535 was important. Its need arose in connection with the appearance of counterfeit, inferior money in circulation. The silver ruble was recognized as the monetary unit, coinage was unified, and a single coin system was established for all cities. Mints were left only in Moscow and Novgorod. Local governors were introduced - elected from among service people. Tselovniks were elected as their assistants from among the black-growing peasants. The functions of labial elders included the right to conduct independent legal proceedings in robbery cases.

Beginning of the reign

After the death of Elena Glinskaya in 1538, her eight-year-old son Ivan IV was left an orphan. During this period, the struggle for power resumed, in which the princes Volsky, Shuisky, Glinsky took part; she was distinguished by cruelty and violence, which, of course, influenced the formation of the character of the future ruler of the Russian state, popularly called Terrible! He received his first death sentence in 1543, when he was only 13 years old. In 1547, Ivan IV took the title of Tsar and was the first Russian ruler to be crowned king in the Assumption Cathedral. From this year he publicly declared himself the Tsar of All Rus'.

In the context of the struggle for the throne, the exorbitant growth of extortions from the urban population, as well as the increasing exploitation of peasants in the country, the social situation in the country worsened: peasants ran away from the feudal lords, arbitrarily plowed their lands, and destroyed documents on the rights of landowners to peasants.

In 1547, an uprising of the townspeople broke out in Moscow, the reason for which was a large fire that destroyed the property of the townspeople. The aggrieved and indignant people demanded that the young tsar hand over the especially hated boyars. The Moscow rebellion was not the only one - unrest also took place in Pskov, Opochka, and Ustyug. The people's protests were suppressed. However, Ivan IV was forced to make concessions - some boyars were removed from the government, and the feeding system was gradually eliminated.

In 1547, under Ivan the Terrible, a new government was created - The chosen one is glad. The rada included representatives of various strata of the ruling class - princes D. Kurlyatev, A. Kurbsky (1528-1583), M. Vorotynsky, N. Odoevsky, V. Serebryany, A. Gorbaty-Shuisky, boyars Sheremetevs. Metropolitan Macarius and the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin played an important role in the Rada. Sylvester(?-ca. 1566), clerk of the Ambassadorial Prikaz I. Viskovaty. The Tsar's sleeping bag headed the Rada A.F. Adashev(?-1561). He was a service man of not very noble family. Contemporaries considered him knowledgeable and intelligent. Thus, the composition of the council testified to the compromise nature domestic policy, carried out at this stage by Ivan IV.

The elected Rada was not an official government institution, but it ruled on behalf of the Tsar for 13 years and was in fact the government.

The members of the Elected Rada set their task to streamline the laws and government of the country, to find an expansion of sources of income to the treasury, taking into account the interests of both the serving nobility and the boyars.

Reforms of the 50s

When developing reforms, the demands of petitions addressed to the Tsar and written in 1549 by a nobleman and writer were taken into account I.S. Peresvetov.

Reforms included the creation new system central government bodies - orders. In the middle of the 16th century. In Russia there were about 20 orders, each of which was in charge of certain matters. Thus, the Ambassadorial Order regulated relations with foreign countries, Pushkar order- artillery, Rozboiny - affairs on the protection of feudal property, Big Order - public finances, Yamskaya - postal services and postal stations (pits), Local - state lands distributed to the nobles. At the head of the order was a noble boyar, a major government official, and clerks and clerks were subordinate to him. The orders were in charge of tax collection and courts. There were orders in charge of certain territories - the Order of the Siberian Palace, the Order of the Kazan Palace.

The composition of the Boyar Duma was expanded three times by Ivan IV. To resolve the most important state affairs, Ivan IV began to convene a special meeting - Zemsky Sobor. IN it included representatives of the boyars, serving nobility, clergy, merchants, and townspeople. This testified to the creation of an estate-representative institution and the transformation of Russia into an estate-representative monarchy. Issues were discussed at the Zemsky Sobor foreign policy and finance, as well as the election of new kings. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549, it decided to draw up a new Sudebnik and formulated a program of reforms in the 16th century. The Zemsky Sobor in 1550 adopted a new Code of Law, which confirmed the right of peasants to move only on St. George’s Day and increased the payment for the “elderly”.

Zemsky councils were of an advisory nature and did not limit the power of the tsar, but, of course, thanks to them, the political measures of the supreme power were carried out locally. However, zemstvo councils in Russia were held only when necessary, i.e. irregularly.

In the XV-XVI centuries. Local government bodies were also created in Rus' - viceroy system. Governors were sent by the sovereign and the Boyar Duma to cities and lands. The functions of the governors included collecting taxes from the population, monitoring the use of the Grand Duke's decrees, and carrying out trials and reprisals. They did not receive a salary for performing these duties, but were supported by levies from the local population. This procedure for paying for their services was called feeding. Since the governors were left to their own devices, they abused their powers, which caused the population to suffer.

Reforms of the 50s XVI century local government was also affected - the feeding system was abolished. According to the provincial reform, special positions of provincial elders (county, district) were established locally, elected from the nobles. The functions of provincial institutions were transferred to the management of cases of robbers and thieves removed from the court of governors. Thus, provincial elders gained greater power over the local population, which also indicated the strengthening of central power. This reform ensured an influx of additional funds into the treasury (taxes previously appropriated by feeders), strengthened the position of the nobility in the local administrative apparatus, and helped eliminate the remnants of feudal fragmentation in the local government apparatus. On the other hand, it strengthened the resistance of the boyars. "

In 1550, a military reform was carried out aimed at strengthening the country's armed forces. A new standing army was created, armed with firearms (arquebuses) and bladed weapons (berdysh and swords). Such an army began to be called Streltsy. The personal security of the king was provided by a special detachment of 3 thousand people. At the end of the 16th century. The number of Streltsy troops reached 25 thousand people. The Streltsy service took place in Moscow and in almost all major cities. The permanent Streltsy army became a powerful fighting force of the Moscow state. A statute was drawn up. service (published in

1556), according to which two forms of passage were established military service: by country (i.e. by origin) and by device (i.e. by set).

Nobles and boyar children served in their country. Service began at the age of 15, continued throughout life and was inherited. Such service people made up the bulk of the armed forces - the equestrian militia of the feudal lords, and were provided with salaries and land.

The service on the device was carried out by archers.

The Cossacks who lived on the Don also joined the Vtsysko. In 1571, the first Charter was drawn up for the organization of guard and village service on the borders.

By the end of the 16th century. The composition of the Russian troops exceeded 100 thousand people. In addition, there were 2,500 hired Poles, Germans and other foreigners.

Agrarian revolution. Oprichnina

Of utmost importance was agrarian reform Ivan the Terrible. By this time, a large feudal estate with developed immunity, which asserted the independence of its owner from the central government, began to increasingly interfere with the socio-economic development of the Russian centralized state. The boyar nobility competed with the princes, and the princes, in the fight against the boyars, began to rely on the landowners - the nobles.

The state, in conditions of a lack of funds to create a mercenary army, wanting to subjugate the boyars-patrimonial princes and appanage princes, took the path of creating a state estate system. Ivan the Terrible dealt the final blow to the feudal estate in 1565, when he established oprichnina, which was a system of measures aimed at strengthening the autocracy and further enslaving the peasants. Vast territories were allocated from the state land fund, the income from which was to go to the sovereign treasury." The rest of the territory was zemshchina, remaining in the management of the old institutions. The oprichnina included lands with the most developed level of appanage princely land ownership and the most developed cities, i.e. the better half of the country. In these areas, princely and boyar estates were confiscated, their former owners were “withdrawn” to other areas, mainly outlying areas, where they received land on the basis of local law. In the old areas, the lands were given to the guardsmen. This reform was an agrarian revolution, the essence of which was the redistribution of land from the boyars in favor of the nobility. The result of the agrarian revolution is the weakening of large feudal-patrimonial land ownership and the elimination of its independence from the central government; establishment of local land ownership and the associated nobility who supported state power. In economic terms, this gradually led to the predominance of corvée over labor exploitation.

Ivan the Terrible carried out these transformations with incredible cruelty. He attacked Novgorod with an army of guardsmen, since he considered the Novgorodians opponents of his power. Thousands of innocent people died, many were drowned in the river. Volkhov, the surrounding villages were plundered. Upon returning from this campaign to Moscow, Ivan IV continued numerous executions of boyars and servicemen. In the hands of the tsar, the oprichnina was a powerful military punitive organization. It very soon aroused discontent and anger against the tsar both in the feudal elite and among the people.

In the life of the country, the oprichnina ominously intertwined the old and the new.

In an effort to strengthen the central government and eliminate the last appanage estates, Grozny created a new sovereign appanage - the oprichnina, which led to a system of duplicating orders and thoughts and the isolation of the zemshchina. The oprichnina's measures, aimed at strengthening Grozny's personal power, were carried out using barbaric methods. Having ultimately eliminated political fragmentation, the oprichnina caused an extreme aggravation of contradictions. In addition, the oprichnina army was unable to protect the capital from the Tatars, and it was plundered in 1571.

In 1572, Ivan the Terrible abolished the oprichnina and forbade even mentioning this hated word. The unification of the oprichnina and zemstvo territories, the oprichnina and zemstvo troops, and service people followed, and the unity of the Boyar Duma was restored. Thus ended the story of the most mysterious, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, institutions in the history of Russia.

At the beginning of the 16th century. An attempt was made to limit church land ownership, but then the supporters of the rich church, the so-called “money-grubbers,” won. In 1551, at the Council of the Hundred Heads (its decisions were summarized in 100 chapters), the line to limit monastic land ownership and establish control over it by the tsar won; monasteries were obliged to participate in the collection of taxes for the ransom of prisoners (polonyanichny money).

Foreign policy

Under Ivan the Terrible, changes were made to the financial and tax system: a reform of the “plow letter” was carried out, according to which a unit of taxation common to the entire state was introduced - a large plow (a plot of land of 400-600 hectares), from which a “tax” (in kind and monetary) was levied duties). The range of monetary taxes was expanded, monetary rent was expanded, and financial and tax centralization was strengthened.

These reforms helped strengthen the Russian centralized multinational state. This can be judged by the transfer of the right to collect trade duties to the state. The foreign policy of Ivan IV was carried out in three directions: in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the southeast and east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia; in the south - the protection of Russian lands from the raids of the Crimean Khanate. Tatar khans carried out predatory raids on Russian lands. In the territories of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, there were thousands of Russian people captured during raids. The local population - Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians, Tatars, Bashkirs - was brutally exploited. The Volga route ran through the territories of the khanates, but the Volga could not be used by Russian people along its entire length. Russian landowners were also attracted to the fertile, sparsely populated lands of these regions.

First, Ivan the Terrible took diplomatic steps aimed at subjugating the Kazan Khanate, but they did not bring success. In 1552, the 100,000-strong army of the Russian Tsar besieged Kazan. It was better armed than the Tatar one. Ivan IV's artillery had 150 large cannons. Using a tunnel and barrels of gunpowder, the Russians blew up the walls of Kazan. The Kazan Khanate admitted itself defeated. The peoples of the Middle Volga region became part of the Russian state. In 1556, Ivan the Terrible conquered the Astrakhan Khanate. From this period, the entire Volga region was Russian territory. The free Volga trade route significantly improved the terms of trade with the East.

In the middle of the 16th century. Russia included Bashkiria, Chuvashia, and Kabarda. The annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates opened up new prospects, and access to the basins of the great Siberian rivers became possible. The Siberian Khan Ediger recognized vassal dependence on Moscow back in 1556, but the khan who replaced him Kuchum(? - ca. 1598) refused to recognize the power of Moscow (oppressed local residents, killed the Russian ambassador).

The Stroganov merchants, who had a letter from the tsar granting lands east of the Urals, with the permission of Moscow, hired a large detachment of Cossacks to fight Khan Kuchum. The leader of the detachment was the Cossack ataman Ermak(?-1585). In 1581, Ermak’s detachment defeated Kuchum’s troops, and a year later occupied the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk.

Kuchum was finally defeated in 1598, and Western Siberia was annexed to the Russian state. All-Russian laws were adopted in the annexed territories. The development of Siberia by Russian industrialists, peasants and artisans began.

Russia's foreign policy actions in the West are the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, for the Baltic lands captured by the Livonian Order. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to Novgorod Rus'. The banks of the Neva River and Gulf of Finland were formerly part of the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In 1558, Russian troops moved to the West, Livonian War, lasting until 1583. The rulers of the Livonian Order interfered with the ties of the Russian state with Western European countries.

The Livonian War is divided into three stages: until 1561 - Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Dorpat), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga; until 1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, and Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577.

The situation was complicated by the weakening of the country's economy as a result of the devastation by the guardsmen. The attitude of the local population towards Russian troops changed as a result of military extortions.

During this period, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who also knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible, went over to the enemy’s side. The situation was complicated by the devastating raids on Russian lands by the Crimean Tatars.

In 1569, Poland and Lithuania were united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Chosen to the throne Stefan Batory(1533-1586) went on the offensive; Since 1579, Russian troops fought defensive battles. In 1579 Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikiye Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the governor I.P. Shuisky), lasting five months. The courage of the city's defenders prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

However, the Livonian War ended with the signing of the Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces, which were unfavorable for Russia. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were captured by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's strength. The main task - conquering access to the Baltic Sea - was not solved.

Economy of Russia

By the end of the 16th century. Russia's territories expanded almost twice as much as in the middle of the century, and the population amounted to 7 million people.

The main branch of the Russian economy in the 16th century. Agriculture remained. Hunting and fur trades are pushed to the outskirts and retain their importance only in Siberia and the North. Fishing and beekeeping continued to develop, which during this period moved from primitive beekeeping to apiary (organized) beekeeping.

Agriculture developed extensively - through the development of new areas and intensive deforestation and clearing of land for arable land in the central regions of the country.

The main agricultural tool remained the wooden plow; in forest areas, a two-toothed and three-toothed plow was used. In the central regions, they began to cultivate the land with a roe plow, which is a plow-type tool.

The progress of the productive forces of agriculture in conditions of unchanged tools of labor was manifested mainly in the advancement of agriculture to new areas and in the spread of the three-field system. In the central regions of the country in the 16th century. three-field with the correct alternation of winter, spring and fallow fields became dominant.

To cultivate the land with primitive tools, draft animals were required; the trident plow and the roe deer plow were pulled by two or three horses. Therefore, the development of arable farming was accompanied by the growth of cattle breeding.

In the second half of the 16th century. the process of colonization of the outskirts began. Two main directions stood out; south and southeast of Moscow and east - Trans-Urals and Siberia. The vacant lands of the southeast were called wild fields; Since these outskirts of the Moscow state were constantly subject to raids by the Nogai and Crimean Tatars, in order to strengthen the defense, measures were taken to populate and develop them. Along the southern border, fortified points and fortresses were built - a serif line, where people performing border service were settled, for which they were given small land. In the 60-70s of the 16th century. Peasant colonization of the southern lands intensified. Landowners also flocked to the rich black soil lands. The government granted them huge estates in these areas. The eastern lands of Western and Central Siberia were inhabited mainly by peasants.

The process of uniting disparate territories into a single state was accompanied by the development of cities, where crafts and trade were concentrated. Cities grew overgrown posads, in where free artisans settled. In favor of the prince, the population of the towns bore duties - the townsman tax. By the end of the 16th century. There were about 220 cities in Russia. The most big city there was Moscow with a population of 100 thousand people, in other cities of Russia there were 3-8 thousand people each. The largest Russian cities were Novgorod, Pskov, Vologda, Veliky Ustyug, Kazan, Yaroslavl, Sol Kamskaya, Kaluga, Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Astrakhan.

In the 16th century There was a rise in handicraft production, which was expressed in the differentiation of its types, the number of industries and new specialties increased, which contributed to the development of exchange, although the connections between urban crafts and the market were still weak.

Large industries working for the market are distinguished: salt making, mining and smelting iron ore, construction of stone buildings, forestry, potash production. The specialization of production was closely related to the availability of local raw materials and was exclusively natural and geographical in nature.

Trade is developing. If in the 15th century trade was carried out in local markets, then in the 16th century. - at the district level. Along with merchants, secular and spiritual feudal lords, especially monasteries, were engaged in trade. Trade flows were formed - grain was brought from the center and southern regions to the north, leather from the Volga region, furs, fish, salt from Pomerania and Siberia; Tula and Serpukhov sent metal.

In the 16th century trade relations between the Russian state and England were established through Arkhangelsk, founded in 1584. In the age of the formation of the world market and the Great Geographical Discoveries, Russia traded with Poland, Principality of Lithuania, with the Tatar Khanate, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Turkey, Persia. Russia exported mainly raw materials to Western countries, and handicraft products to Eastern countries.

9.2. XVII century in the history of Russia

Time of Troubles

The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, a weak and sickly man became his heir and king. Fedor Ivanovich(1584-1598). A struggle for power within the country began. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts by external forces to eliminate Russia’s state independence. For almost the entire century, she had to fight off the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, the raids of the Crimean Tatars - vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and confront the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Russia went through a period called Troubled times. XVII century marked the beginning of the peasant wars; This century marks the revolt of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the schism Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.0. Klyuchevsky named rebellious.

The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the Tsar's brother-in-law has been on the Russian throne Boris Godunov (1598- 1605), Fedor Godunov(from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605-May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II (1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).

Boris Godunov won the difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian tsar to receive the throne not by inheritance, but by election at the Zemsky Sobor. During his short reign, he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, deciding for 20 years controversial issues with Poland and Sweden; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe. Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603 to Russia about

The “great famine” caused by crop failures collapsed. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed slaves to leave their masters, distributed bread from state storehouses to the hungry. However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, which was led by Cotton Crookedfoot. Many historians consider this uprising to be the beginning of the Peasant War.

The highest stage of the Peasant War at the beginning of the 17th century. (1606-1607) was the uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, in which was attended by serfs, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, as well as the nobles who joined them. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops Vasily Shuisky(the new Russian Tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, etc. In October-December 1606, the rebels besieged Moscow, but due to the disagreements that began - the betrayals of the nobles - they were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. Summer-autumn 1607 together with slave detachments Ilya Gorchakov(Ileiki Muromets, ? - ca. 1608) the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered and the uprising was suppressed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.

At such a critical moment an attempt was made Polish intervention. The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II. Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown from the throne by the nobles, and an interregnum began in Russia - Seven Boyars. The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call the Polish king, the young Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610, a Swedish intervention began with the goal of separating Pskov, Novgorod, and the northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia.

End of the intervention. The fight for Smolensk

In such conditions, it was possible to defend the independence of the Russian state and expel the invaders only by the whole people. This task was completed people's militia led by the Nizhny Novgorod elder Kuzma Minin and the prince Dmitry Pozharsky. After the liberation of Moscow in October 1612, the failure of two attempts by Sigismund (1612, 1617) to recapture the Russian capital, the Polish intervention ended with the Deulinsky "truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1618 under the new king from the new Romanov dynasty - Mikhail Romanov(1596-1645). Under this agreement, Poland received the Smolensk (except for Vyazma), Chernigov and Novgorod Seversky lands. In total, 19 Russian cities went to the Poles, including Smolensk.

During the reign of Michael, in addition to the end of the Polish intervention, the end of the Swedish intervention occurred, when in 1617 the “Eternal Peace” was concluded in Stolbovo (near Tikhvin). Sweden returned Novgorod to Russia, Staraya Russa, Porkhov, Ladoga, Gdov with counties. However, many Russian cities remained with Sweden. In addition, Russia agreed to pay the Swedes 20 thousand rubles. and remained without access to the Baltic Sea.

In 1632-1634. The Russian-Polish (Smolensk) War was fought for the return of the Smolensk and Chernigov lands captured during the years of the Polish intervention. It ended with the surrender of the Russian army, surrounded near Smolensk. Her commander M. Shein(?-1634) was accused by the boyars of treason and hanged. According to the Polyanovsky Peace, Smolensk and the Seversky lands remained with Poland. Russia paid her an indemnity of 20 thousand rubles, although from that moment the Polish king renounced his claims to the Moscow throne.

Russia was worried about the Crimean Khanate, a vassal of Turkey, which was a strong state at that time. In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured Azov, which belonged to Turkey, which they held for five years. By decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1642, the Cossacks were asked to leave this port in order to avoid complications.

"A village near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

Despite numerous wars under the first Romanov, Russia expanded its ties with the West; Foreigners, especially Germans, came to Russia. The West was selling to Russia firearms, recruited mercenary officers and soldiers served in the Russian army. The Dutch merchant A. Vinius founded the first plant for the production of iron and cast iron products near Tula. During these years, the traveler A. Olearius (1603-1671) visited Russia, leaving a description of his journey to Muscovy.

The Council Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy

Reign of those who ascended the throne after the death of Michael Alexey Mikhailovich(1629-1676) was marked by extremely important domestic and foreign policy events for Russia.

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, nicknamed The quietest were measures were taken to strengthen the autocracy. The Order of Secret Affairs was created, the administrative apparatus was strengthened - the number of orders increased.

The largest event in the socio-political life of Russia was the compilation and adoption in 1649 of the Cathedral Code - the first Russian legislative monument published by printing in the amount of 2 thousand copies. It was sent for guidance to all governors in the cities and to all Moscow orders and translated into almost all European languages. The Council Code contains about a thousand articles grouped into 25 chapters. The first nine chapters record punishments for crimes against the church and royal power. There was a provision for burning at the stake if God and the church were criticized. A person accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars and governors, were executed. Anyone who drew a weapon in the presence of the king was punished by cutting off his hand. Thus, in the Council Code the personality of the sovereign, the honor sovereign's court, Orthodoxy and the feudal system were defended. Land ownership was consolidated as a privilege of the ruling feudal class, and church land ownership was limited. Serfdom received legislative registration: St. George's Day was abolished completely, feudal lords could fully dispose of the property, labor and personality of the peasant. In general, the Council Code testified to the centralization of state power, the increasing role of the nobility in strengthening the state and the movement of Russia towards an absolute monarchy. Soon zemstvo cathedrals lost their role.

External policy

In the 17th century The liberation war of the Ukrainian people against Polish-gentry oppression began. It lasted from 1648 to 1654, it was led by the hetman of Ukraine Bohdan Khmelnytsky(c. 1595-1657). In October 1653, the Zemsky Sobor approved the proposal of the government of Tsar Alexei to accept Ukraine “under the high hand of the state.” In 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada unanimously spoke out in favor of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, which had progressive significance for the destinies of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples. Ukraine retained a special state and political structure - the hetmanate.

This decision caused the disagreement of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the war with Russia continued in 1654-1667. Russia fought for the return of Smolensk and Chernigov lands, Belarus and the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In 1654-1655 Russian troops defeated the main forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, liberated the Smolensk region and most of Belarus. Military operations, resumed in 1658, proceeded with varying degrees of success. Since 1660 the initiative was seized Polish troops. In 1667, the Truce of Andrusovo was concluded, according to which Poland returned the Smolensk and Chernigov lands to Russia and recognized the reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia.

Simultaneously with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia in 1656-1658. waged a war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. On initial stage Russian troops won major victories in 1657-1658. military operations proceeded with varying success. This war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Kardis in 1661, according to which Russia did not receive access to the Baltic Sea.

Throughout the 17th century. The Crimean Khanate posed a great danger to Russia in the south (remember the siege of Azov). In 1681 the Peace of Bakhchisarai was concluded. According to this agreement, the Dnieper was recognized as the border between Crimea and Russia; For 20 years, the Crimean Khanate pledged not to support the enemy of the Russian state. But in 1686, Russia terminated this treaty, since according to the “Eternal Peace” concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia and Poland united to fight against Turkish-Tatar aggression.

Domestic political situation

Under the first Romanovs, the internal political situation of the country was difficult.

From 1630 to 1650 Residents of 30 cities rebelled - Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, cities of Siberia, etc. The largest uprisings were in Moscow (1648), Pskov and Novgorod (1650). They were suppressed, and their active participants were executed.

XVII century brought serious upheavals to the Russian church. By the middle of this century, dissatisfaction with the church was growing in Russian society, which supported orders that increased the oppression of the common people, as well as the unseemly behavior of many clergy, and the lack of uniformity of church services. Significant discrepancies have accumulated in religious books and church rituals; the sacred canons were interpreted contradictorily. Each locality had its own traditions of worship. The order of the service differed from the Greek rite. Thus, the need for church reform became urgent. In 1653-1660. patriarch Nikon(1605-1681) carried out church reform. She unified church rituals and established uniformity of worship for all Orthodox churches. The Greek rite was taken as a model, all sacred and liturgical books were corrected according to Greek models, only icons of Greek writing were allowed for worship.

Despite the fact that the reform of Patriarch Nikon was supported by Emperor Alexei Mikhailovich, his inner circle and the highest clergy, there was schism of the Russian church. Priests and archpriests spoke out against the church reform in Moscow (I. Neropov, S. Vnifatyev), in Suzdal (N. Pustosvyat), in Yuryevets - Avvakum Petrov and other cities. They began to be called schismatics.

Archpriest Avvakum(1620-1682) was the ideologist of the Old Belief, the Old Believers. They demanded a return to previous rituals and traditions: reading and singing different things simultaneously in several voices during the service (the reform established unanimity); make the sign of the cross with two fingers, and not three, as the reform believed; bows during worship should remain at the waist, and not to the ground, as introduced by the reform; they demanded a return to the procession of salting, and not the procession of the cross towards the sun, as the reform provided for.

Many townspeople, peasants, and archers were on the side of the Old Believers. The split of the church became a form of social protest among the masses.

All provisions of the reform were approved by zemstvo councils

1654-1656; The schismatics were condemned and excommunicated. The priest Avvakum was exiled to Dauria (Transbaikalia), returned to Moscow, exiled again, then cut off, cursed and burned.

The social protest of the schismatics was essentially directed towards fanaticism and asceticism, mysticism; supporters of the schism denied everything new and foreign; were hostile to secular culture and knowledge. Therefore, it is impossible to evaluate the schism as a truly progressive phenomenon, although thanks to the Old Belief many written monuments of past centuries have been preserved.

Nikon's intervention in the internal and foreign policy affairs of the state, justified by the fact that “the priesthood is higher than the kingdom” (the church is higher than the monarch), led to the patriarch’s break with the tsar. Zemsky Sobor 1666-1667 Nikon was deprived of his patriarchate and exiled.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the largest Peasant War in the history of Russia took place in 1670-1671. Its leader is Stepan Razin(c. 1630-1671) Don Cossack, ataman, who first fought with Crimean Tatars, then with the Turks. In 1667, with a detachment of poor Cossacks, he made a trip to the Volga and Yaik, then to Persia along the Caspian Sea. In the spring of 1670 he headed Peasant War, in which he proved himself to be a capable organizer and military leader. He promised to destroy slavery and free the peasants from the power of the boyars and nobles. Along with the Cossacks, the peoples of the Volga region took part in the war. The rebels took Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara, besieged Simbirsk, but Razin’s troops were defeated. The ataman went to the Don, but was betrayed by the homely Cossacks, captured and executed in Moscow. After the execution of Razin, the war still continued, separate detachments performed in many cities of the Volga region, Galician district, and in the Solovetsky Monastery.

From 1682 to 1696 the Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter(1672-1725) and Ivan(1666-1696). Since they were minors, their sister was the ruler Princess Sophia(1657-1704), reigned from 1682 to 1689. During this period, the role of the prince increased V. Golitsyna(1643-1714), favorite of the princess.

In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight the old outdated boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt, with the help of the archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system and the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow Patriarch and even some streltsy regiments. Peter retained the throne, punished the rebel Streltsy, disbanded the Streltsy army, and Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.

Beginning of the reign of Peter 1

Economy of Russia in the 17th century.

In 1696, Ivan V died, Peter became the sole ruler. Peter's first task was to continue the fight for Crimea. He directed his actions towards capturing Azov, a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and the lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter began building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, doubling his land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To gain a foothold on the Sea of ​​Azov, he built a fortress Taganrog.

IN In 1697, he went with the “Great Embassy” to Europe, combining diplomatic ones. mission with diverse cognitive tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and crafts.

In the 17th century Russia's productive forces have generally evolved. The population increased significantly, amounting to 10.5 million people by the end of the century. There were 335 cities in Russia. During this period, flattening hammers, drilling machines, and paper mills were known in Russia. 55 manufactories were built, mainly metallurgical ones. To create industrial enterprises, foreign capital is attracted to Russia, and on preferential terms.

The process of social division of labor is gradually deepening, the specialization of agricultural and industrial areas is being determined, crafts are turning into small-scale production - all this leads to increased commodity exchange. The local form of land tenure contributes to the decomposition of the natural economy. Production is developing based on the processing of agricultural raw materials: in the estates they are involved in distilling, producing cloth and linen, and creating flour-grinding and tanning enterprises.

In Russia, the process of initial accumulation of capital begins, although, unlike England, it proceeded in a feudal form - wealth was accumulated by large landowners. There was a differentiation of the population, rich and poor appeared, “walking” people appeared, i.e. deprived of the means of production. They become civilian employees. The hired workers could be peasant otkhodniks. The status of an employee receives legislative confirmation in the Council Code. All this indicates the emergence of capitalist relations. This is also facilitated by the systematic growth of trade with European and Asian countries. The Russian market is included in the system of the world market and world economic relations. Russia sells furs, timber, tar, potash, hemp, hemp, ropes, and canvas to Western countries. If previously 20 ships arrived in Arkhangelsk annually, then in the 17th century. -80. Among the imported goods are consumer goods for the feudal elite and silver coins as raw materials for the production of domestic money. Russia traded with Eastern countries through Astrakhan. The cities of Dagestan and Azerbaijan played an important role. In the 17th century trade relations with China and India began.

A new stage is also beginning in the development of domestic trade. Trade ties are acquiring a national character. In terms of trade turnover, Moscow took first place - there were 120 specialized retail rows and 4 thousand retail premises.

In the 17th century active development of Siberia continued. The Russians reached the shores Pacific Ocean, Kamchatka, Kuril Islands. In 1645 the pioneer Vasily Poyarkov went down the Amur into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. In 1648 Semyon Dezhnev(c. 1605-1673) opened the strait separating Asia from North America. In 1649-1653 Erofei Khabarov (ca. 1610-after 1667) from Yakutia made a trip to Dauria (Transbaikalia) and reached the Amur.

Explorers compiled maps of Siberia, drawings, surveys, paintings of cities, individual regions and the entire region as a whole. In 1672, the “Drawing of the Siberian Lands” was compiled. Siberia was gradually settled and colonized, fortified cities were founded, which served as strongholds for their further advancement. They were called forts. Thus, in 1619 the Champs Elysees fort arose, in 1628 - the Krasnoyarsk fort, etc.

The trade of the central regions with the Urals, Siberia expanded, Far East, with the southern outskirts. The centers of trade were large fairs of all-Russian significance - Makaryevskaya from the 16th century, Irbitskaya from the first half of the 17th century, Svenskaya, Arkhangelsk.

There have been shifts in the social structure of Russian society. Approval in the XV-XVI centuries. The nobility put forward the local form of land ownership, and in the 17th century. positions strengthened merchants. Domestic trade is turning into a sphere for the application of merchant capital. The merchants are allocated to a special group and are divided into corporations: guests, living hundred, cloth hundred.

The Russian government supported the merchants. In 1653, a law was adopted on internal and external trade of Russia: the Trade Charter, which replaced the plurality of trade fees with a single ruble trade duty in the amount of 5% of turnover. In 1667, the New Trade Charter was adopted, which was protectionist in nature and protected the Russian merchants from foreign competition.

In the 17th century In Russia, a reform of public finances was carried out, although it was still of a feudal nature. Instead of personal taxes, household taxation was introduced in 1678, which expanded the number of taxpayers. The system of other direct taxes was also changed.

In 1649-1652. In Russia, a reform was carried out, called the "Posad structure", according to which white settlements were liquidated in cities, they were merged with the towns. Now the tax on the sovereign had to be borne by everyone urban population. "Posad building" was carried out on a national scale.

In 1679, various taxes collected from the craft and trade population of the towns were combined into a single tax - “streltsy money” or “streltsy tax”. A tax farming system was introduced - a form of tax collection. The “surcharge” received by the tax farmer for the right to collect taxes was the source of the initial accumulation of capital.

Bodies of state control appeared: in 1655-1678. There was an Accounting Order, which at the end of the century was replaced by the Near Office. In 1654, a monetary reform was carried out, according to which copper money was introduced into circulation with a forced exchange rate - the copper penny was equal to the silver one. The reform ended unsuccessfully. Copper money has become worthless. The response to this monetary policy was Copper riot in Moscow in 1652. The revolt was suppressed, but the government was forced to abolish copper money; it was withdrawn from circulation.

"White settlements belonged to private feudal lords; they were not subject to taxes. The population of the settlements opposed such an unfair distribution.

The era of the XVI-XVII centuries. was a turning point not only for Europe, but also for Russia. Here the process of the formation of a single state was completed and its type was determined as a multinational centralized state. A state system of serfdom emerged. At the same time, the trend towards decomposition of the natural economy has intensified in Russia, and the formation of a single all-Russian market begins. The state is expanding its territory, actively participating in geographical discoveries and becoming increasingly involved in the orbit of pan-European politics and trade. Same as in countries Western Europe, in Russia in this era there was a tendency to weaken the church and promote the state system from the estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. The papacy's attempts to draw Russia into the sphere of influence of Catholicism were also unsuccessful.

Self-test questions

1. Reveal how the estate-representative monarchy developed in Russia in the 16th century. - XVII century and how the transition to absolute monarchy took place in the second half of the 17th century.

2. What areas of socio-political and economic life were affected by the reforms of Ivan IV, what significance did they have?

3. How do you assess the oprichnina?

4. Tell us about the main events of Russian foreign policy in the 16th-17th centuries. and their consequences.

5. What caused the Time of Troubles, what role did it play in the awakening of national self-awareness?

6. Reveal the main stages of the enslavement of peasants in Russia, show the role of the state in this process.

7. Describe the content and significance of the Council Code of 1649.

8. What caused the schism of the church in Russia in the 17th century, what did it lead to?

9. Reveal the causes and nature of estate and class contradictions in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries, and the forms of their resolution.

With the withering away of Kievan Rus and the passing of its era into oblivion, a new stage begins in Russian history. Now the center of the state is moving to the new capital - Moscow, which was not chosen by chance. Moscow was located at the junction of trade and economic relations between East and West, Europe and Asia, but its location did not imply adherence to one of the cultures. On the contrary, now Rus' is forming its own, new culture. With the rise of Ivan the Terrible to power, Rus' is now called Russia, or the Russian state. The role of the Orthodox Church is increasing, and the Moscow principality, which considered itself the main stronghold of Christianity in the world, takes on the role of defender of the Orthodox religion, from Western Catholicism and Eastern Islam. The new tsar did not build his state to match the European one; on the contrary, new Russia arose more as a contrast to the Western form of government. The state among the population was recognized as the only great value; any arbitrariness or strict dictatorship was taken for granted. Therefore, the growing role of the Orthodox Church was of great importance for the people; it served them as consolation and gave them hope for better times.
The culture of the Muscovite kingdom in the 16th and 17th centuries had clear characteristics indicating the advent of a new era in the development of culture and knowledge. It was this period that laid the foundations for conscious folk creativity, and the imprint of this time period was reflected in all subsequent cultural development of the Russian peoples. First of all, it should be noted that there is a significant differentiation of the cultural sphere. New trends emerge, characteristic genres and works corresponding to them appear, the cultural environment takes on new forms. The original Russian cultural mentality is growing in breadth, conflicting with the diversity of cultures of the multinational kingdom. There is a certain Western vein in the formation of the cultural layer, but the development of culture is certainly monitored by the state, and the church acts as a kind of censor.
The contradiction is the significant strengthening of the role of the church in worldly life, against the backdrop of the withering away of spiritual values ​​(which happened, for example, in the Kyiv regions, after the departure of the state governing structure from there). Secular aspects are increasing in society.
Public education begins its new era with the introduction and development of printing. The first Russian book printer is Ivan Fedorov, who was awarded the right to print the first Russian book. She was called Apostle, born in 1564.
Everywhere in school educational institutions they begin to study spelling and counting, books on Christianity are presented for study, the very first teaching aids. The most literate sections of the population were the nobility, clergy, merchants, and the townspeople also had relative literacy. Later, the first in nature appears in Moscow educational institution, called the Slavic-Greek Latin Academy.
Oral folk art also continued to develop, the works of which reflected all the hardships that befell the serf population. This includes the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the outbreak of unrest, Razin’s dictatorship, and Ermak’s ambitious campaigns. It even appears in literary art special genre a satirical story telling about the life incidents of society. Poems begin to be created, stories and poems are written for the court theater. Recognized modern science Archpriest Avvakum, who had previously been burned due to sabotage of the Nikon church reform, managed to leave his “life”, which has been perfectly preserved to this day.
A colossal rise in the culture of the Muscovite kingdom in the 16th and 17th centuries was observed in architecture and construction. Urban development and the construction of temples primarily made of stone, which, unlike wood, did not burst into flames from a single spark, flourished. Stone construction was new, so only princely families, boyars and merchants could afford a stone house. During the same period, the great St. Basil's Cathedral was built, forever establishing the original Russian cultural architectural style, called the “Moscow tent-roofed” style.
Significant development is also taking place in the field of icon painting, and the portrait genre is being born in Russian painting. Ancient primordial customs and traditions, characteristics of the way of life are vividly and deeply represented in the work “Domostroy”. It is like a textbook, which should be used to build family relationships, everyday life and work. It was compiled by the personal confessor of Tsar Ivan the Terrible - Sylvester.
If we look separately at the mental development of the Russian nation, then the culture of the Moscow kingdom in the 16th and 17th centuries clearly reflects the universal admiration for the autocrat and his will. Night pubs and folk festivals, of course, become an integral and necessary recreation. Consolation is found in the family environment and church worship. It was these aspects that were the main components of the cultural and living environment for the entire people.