Byzantine antiquities. Byzantine Empire

1. Roman political tradition
The ideal and goal, that is, the idea of ​​​​creating a world empire that would overcome the chaotic confrontation of peoples and establish universal peace, Byzantium inherited from ancient Rome. This idea of ​​"pax romana" was mixed with Christian aspirations for the universal Kingdom of Christ. The Byzantines, of course, knew how to make the necessary theological distinction: even the Christianized Roman Empire was not yet the Kingdom of God. However, the Christian emperor, in a certain sense, anticipated the Kingdom of Christ and even became, as it were, His deputy in governing the present, not yet transformed, sinful and imperfect world; the experience of the true Kingdom was provided by the Eucharist, the church governed by a spiritual hierarchy. The emperor, first of all, was obliged to protect and strengthen it, for only the church ensured the legality of imperial claims and only through it could the emperor fulfill his function as a disseminator of the apostolic faith and guardian of Christian truth in the life of society. The Byzantine theory about the relationship between church and state could not be expressed in purely legal language and found its most perfect embodiment in the ideal concept of the “symphony” created by Emperor Justinian. Official and legal texts abound with references to the ideally universal power of the emperor and the corresponding equally universal expansion of the church.

Symbolically, it was very important that in church services the power of the emperor of “New Rome” was proclaimed exclusive. Thus, in the famous Christmas stichera, the providential meaning of the universal “pax romana” was recognized not only by the Byzantines, but also by all the Slavs:

To Augustus, the sole ruler of the earth, the multiplicity of men has ceased: and You will become human from the Pure One, the polytheism of idols has been abolished, under one worldly kingdom the city has been, and the pagans have believed in one dominion of the Divine. Having written to the people by the command of Caesar, we have written in the faithful name of the Divinity of You, our God incarnate. Great is Your mercy, O Lord, glory to You.7

It is not for nothing that the name of the Byzantine emperor was remembered in church services both in Byzantium and in Kievan Rus. In 1397, Patriarch Anthony wrote to the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily: “It is impossible for Christians to have a church and not have a king. For the kingdom and the church are in a close union, and it is impossible to separate them from each other.”8

Therefore, there is nothing strange in the fact that Patriarch Photius speaks of the Russians as “subjects” of the empire.9 Even Muslim sources are not alien to the idea that the Emperor of Constantinople is the ruler of many peoples, including the Macedonians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Vlachs, Alans, Russians , Iberians (i.e. Georgians), Turks (i.e. Hungarians).10

These texts were sometimes understood from the perspective of Western political ideas about the relationship between overlord and vassals,11 and those historical schools for which only the nation-state is the political reality often simply ignored them. In both cases, the idea of ​​a “Byzantine commonwealth” led by an emperor eluded the researcher, and the Slavic Orthodox peoples never denied the existence of a “commonwealth”, even though sometimes the Bulgarians or Serbs tried to assert their independence.

Roman (and Byzantine) political ideology in its original form was completely “imperial”: it implied direct control by the emperor of all his subjects. When Justinian reconquered Italy or Basil II crushed the Bulgarian Empire and restored the old Roman fortifications on the Danube, they thereby affirmed the imperial tradition, since they had the means to directly and consistently impose their power. However, as the military power of the empire waned, this approach became less and less realistic. It was then that the union of Roman universalism and the universalism of the Christian church pointed to an alternative solution, which was already practically implemented during the 5th and 6th centuries in the relations between the rulers of Constantinople and the barbarian principalities of the West. The latter, having adopted Christianity, recognized, at least nominally, the absolute supremacy of the emperor, gladly received court titles from him, organized their own court on the Constantinople model and imitated the artistic tastes of the capital (for example, the kingdom of Theodoric in Italy). This did not mean direct dependence, but only recognition of the principle of a single and universal Christian empire. It received practical significance mainly in the activities of the church: the popes, faithful to the imperial ideology (regardless of occasional clashes with emperors, especially those who fell into heresy), acted in the West as representatives of the empire and stood guard over the unity of the “ecumene”. We find numerous examples in the letters of Pope Gregory III (590-604). The Pope is loyal to the empire, while not approving of specific manifestations of imperial policy. Thus, in a letter to the court of Constantinople about the decree of the Emperor of Mauritius, which prohibited government officials from taking monastic vows, he states: “Obeying your commands, I took care that this law became known in many countries. By this message I also inform my most honorable sovereigns that the said law certainly does not correspond to the will of God. Thus, I fulfilled my duty in both respects. I obeyed the emperor and, nevertheless, did not hide what I had to say in the truth of God."12

The history of relations between Byzantium and the Western German principalities in the early Middle Ages (these relations were sharply disrupted by the imperial coronation of Charlemagne in 800) provides an almost exact example of the ties that united the “Byzantine commonwealth” in Eastern Europe after the conversion of the Slavic peoples to Christianity. From the example of Bulgaria we see that the dramatic events that took place between 865 and 1015 must be understood in the light of the ideological concept with the main features of which we have just become acquainted. Tsar Boris was baptized in 865 and became the godson of Emperor Michael III, thereby recognizing the ideal system of a worldwide empire. His son Simeon and the Western Bulgarian king Samuel fought with Byzantium not to destroy the empire, but in order to lead it themselves, as the Carolingians did.13 In the 10th century, the Byzantine emperors were able to prevent the usurpation of the throne by the Bulgarians with weapons and temporarily restore traditional forms of Roman military and administrative dominance. Only lack of military strength, and not ideological considerations, kept them from treating the Western Carolingian usurpers in the same way. The same military and geographical factors forced them to establish diplomatic relations with the Western Empire (complicated by religious conflict with the papacy, which fell under German tutelage), but Byzantium never recognized Western imperial claims.

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Constantinople - at the center of the world

On May 11, 330 AD, on the European shore of the Bosphorus, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great solemnly founded the new capital of the empire - Constantinople (and to be precise and use its official name, then New Rome). The emperor did not create a new state: Byzantium in the strict sense of the word was not the successor of the Roman Empire, it itself was Rome. The word "Byzantium" appeared only in the West during the Renaissance. The Byzantines called themselves Romans (Romeans), their country - the Roman Empire (Empire of the Romans). Constantine's plans corresponded to this name. New Rome was built at a major crossroads of major trade routes and was originally planned as the greatest of cities. Built in the 6th century, Hagia Sophia was the tallest architectural structure on Earth for more than a thousand years, and its beauty was compared to Heaven.

Until the mid-12th century, New Rome was the main trading hub of the planet. Before its devastation by the Crusaders in 1204, it was also the most populated city in Europe. Later, especially in the last century and a half, globe More economically significant centers emerged. But even in our time strategic importance it would be difficult to overestimate this place. Owner of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits owned the entire Near and Middle East, and this is the heart of Eurasia and the entire Old World. In the 19th century, the real owner of the straits was the British Empire, which protected this place from Russia even at the cost of an open military conflict (during the Crimean War of 1853–1856, and the war could have started in 1836 or 1878). For Russia, this was not just a matter of “historical heritage,” but an opportunity to control its southern borders and main trade flows. After 1945, the keys to the straits were in the hands of the United States, and the deployment of American nuclear weapons in this region, as is known, immediately caused the appearance of Soviet missiles in Cuba and provoked the Cuban Missile Crisis. The USSR agreed to retreat only after the curtailment of American nuclear potential in Turkey. Nowadays, the issues of Turkey’s entry into the European Union and its foreign policy in Asia are paramount problems for the West.

They only dreamed of peace

New Rome received a rich inheritance. However, this also became his main “headache”. In his contemporary world there were too many contenders for appropriation of this inheritance. It is difficult to remember even one long period of calm on the Byzantine borders; the empire was in mortal danger at least once a century. Until the 7th century, the Romans, along the perimeter of all their borders, waged difficult wars with the Persians, Goths, Vandals, Slavs and Avars, and ultimately the confrontation ended in favor of New Rome. This happened very often: young and vibrant peoples who fought the empire went into historical oblivion, while the empire itself, ancient and almost defeated, licked its wounds and continued to live. However, then the former enemies were replaced by Arabs from the south, Lombards from the west, Bulgarians from the north, Khazars from the east, and a new centuries-old confrontation began. As the new opponents weakened, they were replaced in the north by the Rus, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Polovtsy, in the east by the Seljuk Turks, and in the west by the Normans.

In the fight against enemies, the empire used force, diplomacy, intelligence, military cunning, honed over centuries, and sometimes the services of its allies. The last resort was double-edged and extremely dangerous. The crusaders who fought with the Seljuks were extremely burdensome and dangerous allies for the empire, and this alliance ended with the first fall for Constantinople: the city, which had successfully fought off any attacks and sieges for almost a thousand years, was brutally devastated by its “friends.” Its further existence, even after liberation from the crusaders, was only a shadow of its previous glory. But just at this time, the last and most cruel enemy appeared - the Ottoman Turks, who were superior in their military qualities to all previous ones. The Europeans truly got ahead of the Ottomans in military affairs only in the 18th century, and the Russians were the first to do this, and the first commander who dared to appear in the internal regions of the Sultan's empire was Count Pyotr Rumyantsev, for which he received the honorary name of Transdanubia.

Irrepressible subjects

The internal state of the Roman Empire was also never calm. Its state territory was extremely heterogeneous. At one time, the Roman Empire maintained its unity through its superior military, commercial and cultural capabilities. The legal system (the famous Roman law, finally codified in Byzantium) was the most perfect in the world. For several centuries (since the time of Spartacus), Rome, within which more than a quarter of all humanity lived, was not threatened by any serious danger; wars took place on distant borders - in Germany, Armenia, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Only internal decay, the crisis of the army and the weakening of trade led to disintegration. Only from the end of the 4th century the situation on the borders became critical. The need to repel barbarian invasions different directions inevitably led to the division of power in a huge empire between several people. However, this also had negative consequences - internal confrontation, further weakening of ties and the desire to “privatize” their piece of imperial territory. As a result, by the 5th century the final division of the Roman Empire became a fact, but did not alleviate the situation.

The eastern half of the Roman Empire was more populated and Christianized (by the time of Constantine the Great, Christians, despite persecution, already accounted for more than 10% of the population), but in itself did not constitute an organic whole. Amazing ethnic diversity reigned in the state: Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Arabs, Armenians, Illyrians lived here, and soon Slavs, Germans, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, Turks, Italians and many other peoples appeared, from whom only the confession of the true faith and submission to the imperial power appeared . Its richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - were geographically too distant from the capital, fenced off by mountain ranges and deserts. As trade declined and piracy flourished, maritime communication with them became increasingly difficult. In addition, the overwhelming majority of the population here were adherents of the Monophysite heresy. After the victory of Orthodoxy at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, a powerful uprising broke out in these provinces, which was suppressed with great difficulty. Less than 200 years later, the Monophysites joyfully greeted the Arab “liberators” and subsequently converted to Islam relatively painlessly. The western and central provinces of the empire, primarily the Balkans, but also Asia Minor, experienced a massive influx of barbarian tribes - Germans, Slavs, Turks - for many centuries. Emperor Justinian the Great tried in the 6th century to expand the state's boundaries in the west and restore the Roman Empire to its “natural borders,” but this led to enormous effort and expense. Within a century, Byzantium was forced to shrink to the limits of its “state core,” predominantly inhabited by Greeks and Hellenized Slavs. This territory included the west of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, the Balkans and southern Italy. The further struggle for existence mainly took place in this territory.

The people and the army are united

The constant struggle required constant maintenance of defense capability. The Roman Empire was forced to revive the characteristic features of Ancient Rome of the republican period, peasant militia and heavily armed cavalry troops, again create and maintain a powerful navy at state expense. Defense has always been the main expense of the treasury and the main burden for the taxpayer. The state closely monitored that the peasants maintained their fighting capacity, and therefore strengthened the community in every possible way, preventing its disintegration. The state fought against the excessive concentration of wealth, including land, in private hands. State regulation of prices was very important integral part politicians. The powerful state apparatus, of course, gave rise to the omnipotence of officials and large-scale corruption. Active emperors fought against abuses, while inert ones started the disease.

Of course, slow social stratification and limited competition slowed down the pace of economic development, but the fact of the matter is that the empire had more important tasks. It was not because of a good life that the Byzantines equipped their armed forces with all sorts of technical innovations and types of weapons, the most famous of which was the “Greek fire” invented in the 7th century, which brought the Romans more than one victory. The army of the empire maintained its fighting spirit until the second half of the 12th century, until it gave way to foreign mercenaries. The treasury now spent less, but the risk of it falling into the hands of the enemy increased immeasurably. Let us recall the classic expression of one of the recognized experts on the issue, Napoleon Bonaparte: the people who do not want to feed their army will feed someone else’s. From that time on, the empire began to depend on Western “friends,” who immediately showed it the value of friendship.

Autocracy as a recognized necessity

The circumstances of Byzantine life strengthened the perceived need for the autocratic power of the emperor (Basileus of the Romans). But too much depended on his personality, character, and abilities. That is why the empire developed a flexible system of transferring supreme power. In specific circumstances, power could be transferred not only to a son, but also to a nephew, son-in-law, brother-in-law, husband, adopted successor, even one’s own father or mother. The transfer of power was secured by a decision of the Senate and the army, popular approval, and a church wedding (from the 10th century, the practice of imperial anointing, borrowed from the West, was introduced). As a result, imperial dynasties rarely survived their centenary, only the most talented - the Macedonian - dynasty managed to hold out for almost two centuries - from 867 to 1056. A person of low origin could also be on the throne, promoted thanks to one or another talent (for example, the butcher from Dacia Leo Macella, a commoner from Dalmatia and uncle of the Great Justinian Justin I, or the son of an Armenian peasant Basil the Macedonian - the founder of that same Macedonian dynasty). The tradition of co-government was extremely developed (co-rulers sat on the Byzantine throne for a total of about two hundred years). Power had to be held firmly in hands: throughout Byzantine history there were about forty successful coups d'etat, usually ending with the death of the defeated ruler or his removal to a monastery. Only half of the basileus died on the throne.

Empire as a katechon

The very existence of an empire was for Byzantium more of an obligation and a duty than an advantage or a rational choice. The ancient world, the only direct heir of which was the Roman Empire, has become a thing of the historical past. However, his cultural and political legacy became the foundation of Byzantium. The Empire, since the time of Constantine, was also a stronghold of the Christian faith. The basis of the state political doctrine was the idea of ​​the empire as a “katechon” - the guardian of the true faith. The barbarian Germans who filled the entire western part of the Roman ecumene accepted Christianity, but only in the Arian heretical version. The only major “acquisition” of the Universal Church in the West until the 8th century was the Franks. Having accepted the Nicene Creed, the Frankish king Clovis immediately received the spiritual and political support of the Roman Patriarch-Pope and the Byzantine Emperor. This began the growth of the power of the Franks in western Europe: Clovis was granted the title of Byzantine patrician, and his distant heir Charlemagne, three centuries later, already wanted to be called Emperor of the West.

The Byzantine mission of that period could easily compete with the Western one. Missionaries of the Church of Constantinople preached throughout Central and Eastern Europe - from the Czech Republic to Novgorod and Khazaria; The English and Irish Local Churches maintained close contacts with the Byzantine Church. However, papal Rome quite early began to be jealous of its competitors and expelled them by force; soon the mission itself in the papal West acquired an openly aggressive character and predominantly political objectives. The first large-scale action after Rome's fall from Orthodoxy was the papal blessing of William the Conqueror for his campaign in England in 1066; after this, many representatives of the Orthodox Anglo-Saxon nobility were forced to emigrate to Constantinople.

Within the Byzantine Empire itself, there were heated disputes on religious grounds. Heretical movements arose either among the people or in the government. Under the influence of Islam, the emperors began iconoclastic persecutions in the 8th century, which provoked resistance from the Orthodox people. In the 13th century, out of a desire to strengthen relations with the Catholic world, the authorities agreed to a union, but again did not receive support. All attempts to “reform” Orthodoxy based on opportunistic considerations or to bring it under “earthly standards” have failed. The new union in the 15th century, concluded under the threat of Ottoman conquest, could no longer even ensure political success. It became a bitter smile of history over the vain ambitions of the rulers.

What is the advantage of the West?

When and in what ways did the West begin to gain the upper hand? As always, in economics and technology. In the spheres of culture and law, science and education, literature and art, Byzantium until the 12th century easily competed with or was far ahead of its Western neighbors. Powerful cultural influence Byzantium was felt in the West and East far beyond its borders - in Arab Spain and Norman Britain, and in Catholic Italy it dominated until the Renaissance. However, due to the very conditions of existence of the empire, it could not boast of any special socio-economic successes. In addition, Italy and Southern France were initially more favorable for agricultural activity than the Balkans and Asia Minor. In the XII–XIV centuries in Western Europe there is a rapid economic growth - one that has not happened since ancient times and will not happen until the 18th century. This was the heyday of feudalism, papacy and chivalry. It was at this time that a special feudal structure of Western European society arose and was established with its estate-corporate rights and contractual relations (the modern West emerged precisely from this).

The Western influence on the Byzantine emperors from the Komnenos dynasty in the 12th century was the strongest: they copied Western military art, Western fashion, and for a long time acted as allies of the crusaders. The Byzantine fleet, so burdensome to the treasury, was disbanded and rotted, its place was taken by flotillas of the Venetians and Genoese. The emperors cherished the hope of overcoming the not so long ago falling away of papal Rome. However, the strengthened Rome already recognized only complete submission to its will. The West marveled at the imperial splendor and, to justify its aggressiveness, loudly resented the duplicity and corruption of the Greeks.

Did the Greeks drown in debauchery? Sin coexisted with grace. The horrors of palaces and city squares were interspersed with the genuine holiness of the monasteries and the sincere piety of the laity. Evidence of this is the lives of saints, liturgical texts, high and unsurpassed Byzantine art. But the temptations were very strong. After the defeat of 1204 in Byzantium, the pro-Western trend only intensified, young people went to study in Italy, and a craving for the pagan Hellenic tradition arose among the intelligentsia. Philosophical rationalism and European scholasticism (and it was based on the same pagan scholarship) began to be viewed in this environment as higher and more refined teachings than patristic ascetic theology. Intellect took precedence over Revelation, individualism over Christian achievement. Later, these trends, together with the Greeks who moved to the West, would greatly contribute to the development of the Western European Renaissance.

Historical scale

The empire survived the fight against the crusaders: on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, opposite the defeated Constantinople, the Romans retained their territory and proclaimed a new emperor. Half a century later, the capital was liberated and held out for another 200 years. However, the territory of the revived empire was practically reduced to the great city itself, several islands in the Aegean Sea and small territories in Greece. But even without this epilogue, the Roman Empire existed for almost a whole millennium. In this case, one can not even take into account the fact that Byzantium directly continues the ancient Roman statehood, and considered the founding of Rome in 753 BC its birth. Even without these reservations, there is no other such example in world history. Empires last for years (Napoleon's empire: 1804–1814), decades ( German Empire: 1871–1918), at best – centuries. The Han Empire in China lasted four centuries, the Ottoman Empire and the Arab Caliphate - a little more, but by the end of their life cycle they became only fictional empires. For most of its existence, the Western-based Holy Roman Empire of the German nation was also a fiction. There are not many countries in the world that did not claim imperial status and existed continuously for a thousand years. Finally, Byzantium and its historical predecessor - Ancient Rome - also demonstrated a “world record” of survival: any state on Earth withstood, at best, one or two global foreign invasions, Byzantium – much more. Only Russia could be compared with Byzantium.

Why did Byzantium fall?

Her successors answered this question differently. The Pskov elder Philotheus at the beginning of the 16th century believed that Byzantium, having accepted the union, betrayed Orthodoxy, and this was the reason for its death. However, he argued that the demise of Byzantium was conditional: the status of the Orthodox empire was transferred to the only remaining sovereign Orthodox state - Moscow. In this, according to Philotheus, there was no merit of the Russians themselves, such was God’s will. However, from now on the fate of the world depended on the Russians: if Orthodoxy falls in Rus', then the world will soon end with it. Thus, Philotheus warned Moscow about its great historical and religious responsibility. The coat of arms of the Palaiologos, inherited by Russia, is a double-headed eagle - a symbol of such responsibility, a heavy cross of the imperial burden.

The elder’s younger contemporary Ivan Timofeev, a professional warrior, pointed to other reasons for the fall of the empire: the emperors, having trusted in flattering and irresponsible advisers, despised military affairs and lost combat readiness. Peter the Great also spoke about the sad Byzantine example of the loss of fighting spirit, which became the cause of the death of a great empire: a solemn speech was delivered in the presence of the Senate, Synod and generals in the Trinity Cathedral of St. Petersburg on October 22, 1721, on the day of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, at the acceptance king of the imperial title. As you can see, all three - the elder, the warrior and the newly proclaimed emperor - meant similar things, only in different aspects. The power of the Roman Empire rested on strong power, strong army and the loyalty of their subjects, but they themselves had to have a strong and true faith at their core. And in this sense, the empire, or rather all those people who made it up, always balanced between Eternity and destruction. The constant relevance of this choice contains an amazing and unique flavor of Byzantine history. In other words, this story in all its light and dark sides is a clear evidence of the correctness of the saying from the rite of the Triumph of Orthodoxy: “This apostolic faith, this paternal faith, this Orthodox faith, this faith establish the universe!”

accepted in history science, the name of the state that arose in the east. parts of Rome empire in the 4th century and existed until the middle. 15th century; adm., economics and Constantinople was the cultural center of Britain. Official name On Wednesday. century - Basileia ton Romaion - the Roman Empire (in Greek "Romeev"). The emergence of V. as independent. the state was prepared in the depths of Rome. empires, where economically more powerful and less affected by the crisis slave owners. Hellenized eastern societies districts (M. Asia, Syria, Egypt, etc.) already in the 3rd century. tried to separate themselves politically from Latvian. West. Creation at the beginning 4th century new political center in the East was actually a division of the empire into 2 states and led to the emergence of V. In the continuation of the 4th century. both states sometimes united under the rule of one emperor, they will end. the break occurred at the end. 4th century The emergence of V. contributed to the economic. stabilization and delayed the fall of the slaveholding. building in the east parts of the Mediterranean. 4 - beginning 7th centuries for V. were characterized by economic rise, transformation of a number of agri. settlements in the centers of crafts and trade in Asia, Syria, eastern. parts of the Balkan Peninsula; development of trade with Arabia, the Black Sea region, Iran, India, China; population density in Syria and Asia. In Marxist historiography, the periodization of the history of early Vietnam is connected with the problem of the existence of slave owners in Vietnam. building, with the stages of transition to feudalism and its development. Most scientists consider V. slaveholding until the middle. 7th century (M. Ya. Syuzyumov, Z. V. Udaltsova, A. P. Kazhdan, A. R. Korsunsky), although some believe that Vladimir switched to feudalism already in the 4th-5th centuries, believing that already in the 4th century A feud began to form. property, main colonat became a form of exploitation in the countryside, in the city the labor of free artisans was used, slavery was preserved only as a dying way of life (this view is most consistently defended by E. E. Lipshits) (see the discussion on the page of the journal "VDI", No. 2 and 3 for 1953, No. 2 and 3 for 1954, No. 1, 3 and 4 for 1955, No. 1 for 1956 and on the page of the magazine "VI", No. 10 for 1958, No. 3 for 1959, No. 2 for 1960, NoNo 6, 8 for 1961). V. in the last period of the existence of the slave system (4th - early 7th centuries). The owners of the land of this period were the state, nobility, church, townspeople, and free peasant communities. Members of the peasant community (metrocomia) had plots of arable land in private ownership; the sale of land to “strangers” was limited (Code of Justinian, XI, 56). The peasants were bound by mutual responsibility; communal relations were regulated by customary law; Garden and vegetable crops and viticulture have become widespread; basic economic the trend was towards the growth of small farming. Slavery still retained a predominant place in society, both in the countryside and in the city. Although the number of slaves entering the military service. production decreased, but the influx of slaves into the state continued, because the barbarian tribes neighboring V., fighting with each other, sold many slaves to V. (almost the only equivalent in trade with V.). Slave prices were stable for a long time. A slave was still considered a thing, the use of which was regulated by law; the slave was not a subject of family law and did not have personal property guaranteed by law. However, the impact of the new relationship was taking its toll; legislation made it easier to free slaves, which was adopted in the 4th-6th centuries. wide scope. The estates of large landowners were cultivated not only by slaves, but also by dependent peasants - enapographers, freedmen, or rented out. Slave owners sought to take advantage of the benefits of small farming. Contrary to basic economics. tendencies of the era, they tried to enslave and attach to the land small landowners, whose dependence was under the rule of slave owners. relations often approached a slave state (especially among enapographers). Slave owner the nature of society in the 4th-6th centuries. was determined not only by the predominance of slave labor in society, but also by the preservation of slave ownership. superstructure that conflicted with progressive development trends. State the apparatus was in the hands of those layers of the nobility who were interested in preserving slave-owning property relations. From Byzantium. Only some of the cities were centers of craft and trade (for example, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Laodicea, Seleucia, Skitopol, Byblos, Caesarea, Beirut, Thessalonica, Trebizond, Ephesus, Smyrna). Most cities are settlements of small property owners and slave owners united in municipalities. Provincial the cities were exploited by the nobility of Constantinople; local government (curia) turned into an auxiliary apparatus of the tax system. Most cities in the 4th-6th centuries. lost its society. land; a number of settlements that were formerly part of the district subordinate to the city received metrocomy rights. Large provincial estates. the nobility also withdrew from subordination to the city; moreover, the election of officials and the bishop (who was of great importance in self-government) was decided by the surrounding large landowners (Code of Justinian 1, 4, 17 and 19). Production in the cities was small-scale, artisans rented premises from the nobility, church, and state. Trade and craft. associations were associated with the liturgical system, therefore rich townspeople and landowners were forcibly included in the colleges. Taxes and rent for the premises were absorbed. part of the surplus product of artisans. Luxury goods and weapons were manufactured in the state. workshops where slave labor predominated (Code of Justinian, XI, 8, 6); those who were legally free were also usually assigned to such workshops and, in case of escape, were forcibly returned. IN major cities there were numerous lumpen-proletarian layer, living at the expense of either the state (policy of “bread and circuses”) or the mountains. liturgists. From the 4th century does charity. functions began to be assigned to the church and special "charitable institutions" The bulk of the grain for the capital came from Egypt. Local markets were supplied by Ch. arr. suburban houses: mountains. the nobility sought to have a “proastia” (suburban estate) with vineyards, olive groves, vegetable gardens, orchards. Despite the devastation caused by barbarian invasions, the severity of taxes, which sometimes forced townspeople to flee the city, until the 7th century. there were no signs of urban agrarianization. Inscriptions and papyri indicate rather the consolidation of old cities and the founding of new cities. The development of the city was based, however, on the shaky ground of a degraded slaveholding. x-va and was interrupted at the beginning. 7th century (this view, however, is disputed by some scientists). Cities were cultural centers (see article Byzantine culture). Those types of antique. property, which had actually ceased to exist, was abolished by the Code of Justinian, where a single “full property” was proclaimed. Justinian's law, imbued with the idea of ​​the supra-class essence of the state, theoretical. the rationale for the cut was the provision of deities, the origin of imperial power, and was aimed at guaranteeing property. slave-owner relations about-va. The social basis of the monarchy in Century 4-6 centuries. there were mountains. slave owners: owners of suburban estates ("proastiev"), homeowners, moneylenders, merchants, from among whom a high-ranking nobility was created by purchasing positions. The material basis of the monarchy was heavy taxes for the population, which meant that they were absorbed. part of the surplus product of slaves and colones. Class. struggle in V. 4-6 centuries. was a protest against the military-fiscal dictatorship, against attempts to artificially detain society. development within the framework of slave ownership. relationships. From the 4th century it took mainly the form of a heretic. movements. Under Constantine, Christianity became the dominant religion, which caused an aggravation of internal affairs. contradictions in the church. Christianity, genetically related to the protest of the oppressed masses, in the 4th century. still retained democracy. phraseology. Church the hierarchs and exploiting strata sought to eliminate them in Christ. democratic doctrine trends; adv. the masses sought to preserve them. The origin of any “heresy” of that time lies in this contradiction. Dept. hierarchs, relying on the mood of the masses, dogmatically formalized those who disagreed with the domination. church teaching (see Donatists, Arianism, Nestorianism, etc. ); later, having become a “church,” heresy lost its democratic character. character. Repression and restrictions on rights and religion were used against heretics. “anathemas” (the church hierarchy fiercely defended slave-owning relations). In Egypt and Syria the church. unrest that took religion. shell, were also due to separatist sentiments. Dr. a form of class struggle was the movement of dims - mountain organizations. population by circus parties (see Veneti and Prasin). Both parties sought to attract people. the masses, who sometimes opposed the oppression of slave owners. states as a whole, against the will of their leaders (for example, in the Nika uprising in 532). V. ethnically represented a combination of various nationalities involved in Helleno-Roman. statehood and culture. Greek the population predominated in Greece, to the east. Mediterranean coast; Romanis lived in the Balkans. tribes into which the Germans, Alans and Slavs joined. settlers. In the East, Britain subjugated the Armenians, Syrians, Isaurians, and Arabs; in Egypt, the local Coptic population. Official language was Latin, which was gradually replaced by Greek from the end. 5th and 6th centuries. Civil language acts was b. including Greek. Protest against national Religion accepted oppression. form (revolt of the Samaritans 529-530). A serious danger for slave owners. V. there were attacks by barbarians. The rural population of Vietnam sometimes supported the barbarians, hoping with their help to get rid of fiscal oppression and oppression of landowners. nobility But the mountains patriciate and trade-craft. layers, fearing barbaric robberies and violation of trades. connections, desperately defended the cities. Among the Byzantines. landowner There was a layer of nobility that was ready to get close to the barbarian leaders. Trying to merge with the military. The nobility of V., the leaders of the barbarians, went into the service of the Byzantines. pr-vu, which used barbarians as punitive forces in the fight against the people. movements (especially in cities). The Visigoths, recruited into the service of Britain, rebelled in 376, which led to revolution. movement among the population of the Balkan Peninsula. In the battle of Adrianople (378) Byzantium. the army was defeated. However, with the support of the mountains. population and due to the betrayal of the barbarian leaders, this movement was suppressed in 380 imp. Theodosius I. Towards the end. 4th century The barbarian element began to predominate in Byzantium. army and there was a real threat of a united action of barbarian slaves with barbarian soldiers. In the face of this danger, the patriciate of Constantinople in 400 carried out a massacre of the barbarian mercenaries and the slaves who supported them, eliminating the threat of barbarian conquest. Having overcome in the 5th century. danger from the Ostrogoths and Huns, the empire in order to stabilize the slaveholding. relations throughout the Mediterranean went on the offensive under Justinian against the barbarian states of the West (Vandal, Ostrogothic and Visigothic). However, V.'s successes turned out to be fragile. In Africa, resistance of the broad masses arose (the Stotza uprising), in Italy - the uprising of the Ostrogoths at hand. Totils supported by slaves and colons. V. suppressed these movements with difficulty. Difficulties increased in the East, where the Persians, taking advantage of separatist sentiments, waged wars against Britain, trying to break through to maritime trade. routes on the Mediterranean and Black Seas. V. waged a difficult struggle with various tribes advancing from the North. Black Sea region, repelling their attacks either by force of arms or by bribing the leaders. Under Justinian, Britain achieved the highest degree of its power; However, Justinian’s aggressive policy undermined the forces of Britain, and already in the last quarter of the 6th century. V. began to lose her conquests in Italy and Spain. Fundamental changes in the position of the empire are associated with the attack of the Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula. Failures in the wars with the Slavs and general discontent among the population caused an uprising in the army. The rebels in 602 with the support of the mountains. the lower classes took possession of Constantinople and, having proclaimed the centurion Phocas emperor, began to carry out terror against the nobility. Regardless of Phocas' subjective goals, his production objectively performed progressive functions. After 8 years the uprising was suppressed, but the rule remained. the class as a whole suffered a crushing blow. The power of the slave owner. The superstructure was broken and the forces striving for social reorganization were given scope. In the 1st half. 7th century Most of the Balkan Peninsula was inhabited by the Slavs, and Syria, Palestine and Egypt were lost to Britain as a result of Arab conquests. Early feudal Vietnam during the period of dominance of the free peasant community (mid 7th - mid 9th centuries). As a result, glory. and Arab. conquests of the territory V. decreased. V. of this period is a country with strong renown. ethnic element. In the north and west of the Balkan Peninsula, the Slavs created their own states (from 681 - Bulgaria) and assimilated the local population; in the south of the Peninsula and in Asia, on the contrary, they merged with the Greek. nationality. The Slavs did not create new social forms in Byzantium, but they introduced them into Byzantium. The community had strong remnants of the tribal system, which strengthened the Byzantine Empire. community, the nature of the cut is the subject of debate. The customary law of the community was formalized by the Agricultural Law (approximately the beginning of the 8th century). Large landholdings have declined enormously; sources speak of abandoned deposits overgrown with forests, of divisions of land between peasants (“merismos”). Apparently, there was a gradual violence. destruction of that form of earth. property in the region was based on the labor of slaves, enapographers and other categories of dependent population. The institution of peasants attached to the land has disappeared: there is no legislator in the Eclogue. the collection of the 8th century, which replaced the Code of Justinian, nor the later Tax Charter provided for attachment to the land. Free cross. the community became dominant. The community owned pastures, forest, and undivided land, but the arable plots were obviously privately owned. The changes were generally favorable for the peasants - and if in the 4th-6th centuries. peasants fled from V. to the barbarians, then from the horse. 7th and 8th centuries from Arabic caliphate and from Bulgaria there was an exodus of the population to Europe. This allowed Byzantium. plans to move to military service in villages. population of the region and the middle. 7th century spread throughout the empire; the structure of the army acquired the territory. character. New military adm. were formed. districts are themes, with a strategist at their head (theme structure). The command structure of the femes was formed from consist. landowners, from among whom the provincials were formed. military landowner nobility turning into feudal. The process of feudalization was facilitated by the fact that the freedom of the peasant was relative - although the peasant did not depend on the large landowner, he was in the grip of the state. taxes and debts to moneylenders; the differentiation of the village progressed. Distributed within the community various shapes rent and hired labor; Slavery also remained. Ch. the enemy is the cross. communities at that time were a state with its tax system and domination. church. At the end of the 7th century. The peasant-plebeian heresy of the Paulicians, which originated in Armenia, spreads. Social changes of the 7th-8th centuries. The city was also affected. Some cities remained centers of commodity production (Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Ephesus). With the loss of the largest cities of Syria, Palestine and Egypt conquered by the Arabs, the role of Constantinople in the history of Britain increased. At the end of the 7th-8th centuries. economical the power of the Constantinople nobility declines, the position of free craft strengthens. Commodity circulation decreased. In archaeological finds of coins from the 7th-8th centuries. almost never occur. Distant cities, without losing their nominal connection with Europe, actually achieved independence and turned into aristocratic republics governed by the patriciate (Venice, Amalfi, Chersonese). Int. Vietnam's policy of this period was characterized by the struggle of the mountains. and provincial nobility, and both groups sought to preserve the centralists. state End of 7th century was marked by confiscations of the property of the ancient mountains. surnames (terror of Justinian II) in favor of the military. settlements and the nascent military. provincial nobility Subsequently, the struggle for the paths of feudalization took the form of iconoclasm, which arose as a people. movement against the oppression of the state and the church (bourgeois historians view iconoclasm from a confessional point of view, seeing in it an exclusively ideological struggle and separating it from socio-economic conditions). Provincial The hierarchs, demagogically leading the movement of the masses, distorted its social meaning, concentrating the attention of the masses on the issue of the cult of icons. Folding military-landowner. the class used the movement to strengthen its political. and economical provisions. The government supported iconoclasm, seeking to strengthen power over the church and take possession of its treasures. The mountains came out on the side of the icon-worshipers. know Constantinople, monasticism associated with it, bargaining. centers of Hellas and islands. The iconoclast emperors of the Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty, confiscating the property of the mountains. nobles and rebellious monasteries, significantly strengthened the femme nobility and supported the free cross. community and mountains artisans. However, the femme nobility began to use their privileges to attack the peasants, which caused discontent among the peasants and thereby narrowed the social base of the iconoclasts. This led to a lot of narcotics. uprising at hand Thomas the Slav (820-823) - the first anti-feudal. movement. In the early period of feudalization in V. intensifies ethnically. diversity of the population. Slavs joining the ranks of the Byzantine nobility assumes special significance. and Armenian know: a number of emperors and major politicians come out of the Armenians. and cultural figures. Vietnam's foreign policy was aimed at the struggle to maintain independence. Having lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, huge territories. on the Balkan Peninsula, V. repelled the onslaught of the Arabs and Bulgarians and in the middle. 8th century went on the offensive. Feudalization of V. during the period of dominance of the city dignitaries (mid 9th - late 11th centuries). Two centuries of dominance of the free cross. communities have had a positive impact on the development of production. strength: empty lands were populated, water mills spread more widely, and the profitability of the village increased. x-va. In the 9th century free cross. the community became the target of an attack by landowners. nobility, especially after the defeat of the uprising of Thomas the Slav. Social struggles intensified; part of the peasantry joined the Paulicians, who founded a military force on the borders of the caliphate. center of Tefrik. Duration The wars ended in 872 with the defeat of the Paulicians, who were partially exterminated and partially resettled to the Balkan Peninsula. Violent The resettlement was intended to weaken the resistance of the masses in the East and create a military. barriers from the alien population to counter the Bulgarians in the West. Massa cross. the lands were seized by the military. nobility. Further attack on the cross. The community was carried out by purchasing the lands of impoverished peasants with the subsequent provision of plots of the acquired land to the villagers on the “Parichian right” (see Pariki). The feud spread widely. dependence of the peasants: a wig, rarely found in monuments of the 9th century, is made ch. figure in the village at the end. 11th century Slavery to con. 11th century almost disappeared, although isolated cases were observed, for example. sale of children during the years disasters. In the process of feudalization, the military changed. organization of the population. Nar. the militia lost its importance. Consist. Some peasants were included in the stratiot lists (see Stratiots) with the announcement of a definition. inalienable part of the land. The sizes of these areas are to gray. 10th century were increased in connection with the introduction of heavy cavalry and reached the size of an estate (cost 12 liters, approx. 4 kg of gold). There was differentiation among the stratiots: those who were economically weakened lost their plots and fell into a dependent state, at the same time becoming a politically unreliable element; the wealthier stratiots tended to join the privileged military-landowning nobility. The vast territories confiscated during the Paulician wars served as the basis for the power of the Asia Minor nobility, which in the 10th-11th centuries. makes attempts to seize state power. From ser. 9th century There is a rapid development of cities, especially large coastal ones (“emporia”). Concentration of wealth as a result of the formation of feuds. property in the province, rapid growth of external. trade with the countries of the East. Europe, the restoration of maritime power in the Aegean and the Adriatic - all this contributed to the development of the craft. Commodity relations were strengthened. Citizenship was restored. Justinian's right (see Prochiron, Epanagoga, Vasiliki). The regulations on trade and crafts were codified (the so-called Book of the Eparch). corporations, in which, along with the free owners of the ergasters, there could also be slaves (as figureheads for the masters). Corporations were provided with benefits - advantages. the right to production and trade, purchasing goods from foreigners. The ergasteria employed hired workers who had little connection with the corporation, as well as slaves and apprentices. Both the types of products and the rate of profit were regulated by the mayor (eparch). Builds. workers were outside the corporations and worked hand in hand. contractors. Standard of living basic the mass of artisans was extremely low. The government's policy boiled down to encouraging associations in order to facilitate government. control and regulation. Despite the presence of remnants of slave ownership. relations, which hindered the development of technology, the craft was mainly of the Middle Ages. nature: small-scale production, associations by profession, regulation. To avoid people unrest, the government sought to ensure the supply of the capital and large cities with necessary goods; to a lesser extent the state was interested in exporting it abroad. Traders and artisans who became rich, by purchasing positions and titles, became part of the high-ranking nobility, abandoning direct participation in trade and craft. activities, which weakened the position of the Byzantines. merchants in their competition with the Italian. Int. politics of V. in the 9th-10th centuries. was carried out in the main in the interests of the mountains. dignitary, united around a synclite of nobility, striving to maintain a leading position in the state and through taxes, adm. and the judiciary exploit the population. Enslavement of the rural population of the provinces. landowners (dinates) and the development of private power locally harmed the influence of the capital's nobility, in the interests of which the Macedonian dynasty began to support the free cross. community against the Dinats, forbidding them to buy the cross. land, and the poor were given benefits for the repurchase of sold land. Peasant relatives and neighbors were given the right of preference when purchasing a cross. plots. This policy was persistently pursued throughout the 10th century. However, the rules of preference created such advantages for the wealthy village elite that patrimonial estates began to emerge from among the peasants themselves, who later merged with the feudal estate. nobility. From 2nd quarter 11th century Byzantine The government increased tax oppression by transferring in kind. cash contributions. The importance of the synclite and local courts has increased. institutions, the influence of crafts and trade has increased. corporations, the intervention of people has become more frequent. masses (especially in the capital) in politics. life. At the same time, typical forms of exploitation of the peasantry through feudal rule were implanted in the provinces. rent. Submission center. state city ​​institutions the nobility did not correspond at all to the established power of the provinces. feud. land ownership, in connection with this the struggle between the capital and the provinces intensified. layers of the nobility, and the government maneuvered between them. After the defeat of iconoclasm and the restoration of icon veneration (843), the importance of monasticism and politics increased. the role of the patriarch. Patriarch Photius came up with the theory of the strong (equal to the imperial) power of the patriarch (Epanagogus). The Church actively intervened in the struggle of various layers for power, hence a number of conflicts with the emperor. Leo VI, Nikephoros II Phocas, Isaac Komnenos. But Byzantine. The (Orthodox) Church failed to create strong centralization. organization, like the papacy in the West: and state. The system, legislation, and education in Britain were less dependent on the church than in the West. Differences between Byzantine. feudalism and feudalism in the West led to disagreements between the East. and zap. churches. In the 9th-10th centuries. disagreements between churches intensified in the struggle for influence in glory. countries and in South. Italy. The discord between the hierarchs was fueled by the hatred of trade and crafts. circles of Constantinople to Italian. competitors. In 1054 the “division of churches” followed. In the 10th-11th centuries. large monasteries were created. feud. possessions, which received special privileges in the field of taxation and rights over the dependent population. Vietnam's foreign policy of this period was characterized by feudalism. expansion. In the 10th century A number of victories were won over the Arabs. In the Balkans, Vladimir captured Bulgaria in 1018 and strengthened its influence in Serbia; fought to maintain positions in the South. Italy and for dominance over the Adriatic and the Aegean. In the 9th century. V. established contact with Kievan Rus. In 860, after repelling the first Russian campaign against Constantinople, V. managed to achieve the baptism of part of the population of Rus'. In 907, as a result of a successful campaign, Prince. Oleg V. had to conclude a mutually beneficial bargain on the basis of equality of the parties. contract, basic the positions of which were consolidated as a result of the campaigns of 941, 944 and the visit of Princess Olga to Constantinople in 957. In 967, a struggle for Bulgaria began between Eastern Europe and Russia, which ended, despite the initial plans. successes of the book Svyatoslav Igorevich, victory of V. In 987 V. entered into an alliance with Prince. Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who helped Vasily II deal with the rebellious feudal lords. With the adoption (c. 988) of the book. Vladimir of Christianity according to Byzantium. According to the ritual, relations between V. and Russia became even closer. However, V. failed to use Christianization for political purposes. subjugation of Rus'. To the east parts of M. Asia, V. continued its expansion, pursuing a policy of oppression of the Transcaucasian peoples. In 1045 Armenia was conquered with the center of Ani. The resistance of the oppressed peoples made Vietnam's position in the East precarious. All R. 11th century in the East there was a danger from the Seljuks. The conquered population of Byzantium was not inclined to support the Byzantines. domination. The result was the defeat of the Byzantines. army at Manazkert (Manzikert) 1071 and the loss of most of M. Asia, conquered by the Seljuks. At the same time, V. loses his possessions in Italy as a result of the offensive of the South Italian Normans. At the same time, the resistance of the masses in conquered Bulgaria intensifies. V. during the period of domination of the military-feudal (provincial) nobility (late 11th - early 13th centuries). In 1081, using heavy international. V.'s position, the throne was seized by a provincial representative. The nobility Alexey I Komnenos, who managed to repel the dangerous offensive of the Normans, Pechenegs, and Seljuks, and from 1096 used the crusades to reconquer part of Asia. By the end of the 11th century. large provincial landowners (Komnin, Duki, Angeli, Palaiologi, Cantacuzene, Vrani, etc.) became the main. domination political force in the state. During the 12th century. Byzantine institutions are being formalized. feudalism: charismatic, pronia, excussion. The progressive ruin of the peasantry led (from the 11th century) to the formation of a special category of “poor people” - actimons. Monastic centers (especially Athos) became semi-independent churches. Mr. you. On the contrary, political the influence of the white clergy declined. Despite the decline of the political influence of the city dignitaries, V. remained bureaucratic. monarchy: remained numerous. staff of financial and judicial officials; citizen the right (Vasiliki) extended to the entire territory. empires. There are still many preserved. layers of independent peasantry, which can also include settlements around the military. fortifications (kastra). Cross. the community fought against pressure from the feudal lords: sometimes it used legal forms, filing complaints in court or to the emperor, and sometimes it took the path of arson of the master's estates. Unlike its predecessors. period, main The way to enslave peasants during this period was no longer the purchase of land by feudal lords, but government measures. authorities. Usually k.-l. the person in the form of a grant was given the right to collect taxes from the defined. settlements. Under Manuel the cross. lands were widely distributed to foreign knights and small Byzantines for management. feudal lords These actions, which caused indignation among contemporaries, were in fact an expropriation of the cross. property of the region, having become the object of a grant, passed into the conditional possession of the feudal lord. Formed in the 12th century. Byzantine feud. institutions grew organically on local soil, however, since the Komnenos dynasty relied partly on Western Europeans. mercenary knights, in Byzantium. feud. apparitions began to appear on the right. concepts and terms. Transfer of power into the hands of the provincials. the nobility somewhat limited its privileges. the position of Constantinople, which generally had a positive effect on the economy of the provinces, where crafts and trade were on the rise, and money was revived. appeal. Many agrarianized in the 7th-8th centuries. the centers again became cities in the economy. sense. The silk industry developed in the cities of Hellas. However, the Komnenos dynasty did not take into account the importance of the mountains. economy and often when concluding international agreements sacrificed the interests of the townspeople. Italian privileges merchants had a detrimental effect on the cities: bargaining gained predominance in the economy of V. capital of the Latins. Thus, the process of creating an internal structure, which was developing favorably for V., was stopped. market and the beginning of the economic was determined. decline B. Unsuccessful external politics under Manuel I undermined the military. the power of V. (in 1176, after the Battle of Myriokephalon, V. forever lost most of M. Asia). After the death of Manuel, a riot broke out in Constantinople. movement against his "Western" policies. A pogrom of the Latins was carried out. Andronicus Komnenos took advantage of this, who, having seized power, tried to revive centralization through terror. state apparatus and thereby prevent the collapse of the empire. However, Andronicus failed to create support for his government and, under the influence of time and failures in the war against the Normans, was overthrown from the throne. The collapse of V. Dept. began. feudal lords and cities sought to gain complete independence. Rebels against the Byzantines. domination, the Bulgarians and Serbs revived their states. The weakened empire was unable to withstand the onslaught of the French. knights and crown. fleet - Constantinople in 1204 as a result of the 4th crusade fell into the hands of the crusaders, who were created on the territory. the regions they conquered into the Latin Empire. V. during the period of feudal fragmentation, the heyday of feudalism (early 13th - mid 15th centuries). V. r fell into a number of independent feudal regions, some of which at different times were under the rule of the French knights, Venetians, Genoese, Catalans, some fell into the hands of the Bulgarians, Serbs, Turks, and some remained under the rule of the feudal lords of Greece (see map) ; however, the uniformity of economic and social life , linguistic and cultural community, preserved history. traditions allow us to interpret V. as a single state, which is in the feudal stage. fragmentation. Feud. the estate was the main household unit. In the 13th-15th centuries. it was drawn into market relations, sending products from buyers through buyers. x-va on the outside. market. The master's plowing, especially on monastery lands, meant that pastures for the master's herds were occupied. part of the land and were served by dependent wigs, elefthers (free, not included in the tax lists), some of which settled, merging with the dependents. Deposits and virgin lands were given to newcomers from “persons unknown to the treasury”, who also joined the dependent population (proskafimen). Scribe books reflected the strong turnover of the dependent population of the feud. estates. Cross. the community that fell under the power of the feudal lord survived (for example, sources testify to the intense struggle of the peasant communities against the monasteries, which sought to expand their holdings at the expense of the peasant land). In the village, social stratification deepened even more: those with little power worked as farm laborers (dulevts). Cross. plots, so-called Stasi, were in inheritance. possession of the cross. families State The peasants had their own land and could sell it or give it away. However, in the 13th-15th centuries. state peasants were the object of grants and easily turned into dependents. Pronia in the 13th-15th centuries. turned into inheritance. conditional possession with military responsibilities. character. Secular feudal lords usually lived in cities, where they had houses and workshops for rent. In rural areas, purgoi were built - piers, fortification castles - strongholds of the feudal lords. Mining resources, salt mines, and alum mines were usually state-owned. property, but were farmed out or ceded to individual nobles, monasteries, and foreigners. Late Byzantine. the city was an agricultural center. territory drawn into the external agricultural trade products (grain, olive, wine, and in some areas raw silk). Economically, Ch. arr. seaside cities. Leading role in external trade belonged to bargaining. Italian capital cities. V. from a country that sold in the 4th-11th centuries. luxury goods, has become a country that sends products abroad with. products and raw materials. Each district that participated in the external trade, was economically isolated from other regions of the country. This prevented the creation of a single internal market. Economical disunity hindered the national reunification of the country. Constantinople, although it was no longer the economic, administrative, cultural center of the entire country, retained an important place in the international. trade. Sources distinguish in the cities of archons (landowners. nobility), Burgesians, or mesoi (prosperous trade and craft stratum), plebeian masses. Inside the city trade and crafts. circles and the plebeian masses fought against the patriciate, which they sought using the feud. unrest, to strengthen the independence of the city in their own interests. At the same time, the population, in the form of support for Orthodoxy, opposed the dominance of the Italians. merchants and Westerners feudal lords Cultural, linguistic and religious. unity, history traditions determined the presence of tendencies towards unification. The leading role in the fight against Lat. empire was played by the Nicene Empire, one of the most powerful Greek. state-in, formed in the beginning. 13th century on the territory V., not captured by the crusaders. Its rulers, relying on small and medium-sized landowners and cities, managed to expel the Latins from Constantinople in 1261. However, this victory did not lead to the reunification of V. Foreign Policy. situation and centrifugal forces , weakness and lack of unity in the mountains. class made it difficult to unite. The Palaiologan dynasty, fearing the activity of the people. the masses have not taken the path to decide. struggle against large feudal lords, preferring dynastic. marriages, intrigues and feud. wars using foreign mercenaries. Foreign policy V.'s position turned out to be extremely difficult: the West did not stop trying to recreate Lat. empire and extend the power of Rome to Europe. dads; economic growth intensified. and military pressure from Venice and Genoa; Serbian offensive from the north-west. and the Turks from the East became more and more successful. Exaggerating the influence of Rome. popes, Byzantine emperors repeatedly sought to obtain military help by subordinating the Greek. churches to the pope (Union of Lyons, Union of Florence), but the dominance of Italian. bargain. capital and spare parts The feudal lords were so hated by the population that the government could not force the people to recognize the union. As a religious feuds and internecine wars were an expression of internal. contradictions in the country: produces. forces developed, certain economic ones appeared. conditions for the introduction of capitalist. relationships. However, if excluded. the weakness of the townspeople and the complete dominance of the feudal lords. orders, any strengthening of external. trade in the department centers (Mystras, Monemvasia, etc.) only strengthened (economically) the feudal lords. Overcome the feud. fragmentation was impossible without revolutionaries. speeches of the masses and followers. fight center government versus feudal fragmentation. The decisive period was the 40s. 14th century, when, during the struggle of two cliques for power, the cross flared up. movement. Having taken the side of the “legitimate” dynasty, the peasantry began to destroy the estates of the rebellious feudal lords, led by John Cantacuzene. The government of Apokavka and Patriarch John began to pursue progressive policies, sharply opposing the feudal rule. aristocracy (confiscation of the estates of the nobility) and against the reaction. mystical hesychast ideology. The townspeople of Thessalonica, organizing the plebeian masses, supported Apokavkos. The movement was led by the Zealot party, whose program was soon adopted by the anti-feud. character. The Constantinople government was afraid of the activity of the masses and did not use the planks. movement. Apokavkos was killed in 1345, and the government’s struggle against the rebellious feudal lords virtually ceased. In Thessalonica the situation became aggravated as a result of the crossing of the mountains. the nobility (archons) sided with Cantacuzene. The plebs who came forward destroyed most of the mountains. nobility However, the movement, having lost contact with the center. pr-vom, acquired a local character and was suppressed. The collapse of the policy of centralization and the defeat of the people. movements in Thessalonica marked the final victory of the reaction. strength Exhausted V. could not resist the onslaught of the Turks, to

There is probably no other more suffering country in the world than Byzantium. Its dizzying rise and such a rapid fall still cause controversy and discussion both in historical circles and among those who are far from history. The bitter fate of the once strongest state of the early Middle Ages leaves neither writers nor filmmakers indifferent - books, films, and TV series are constantly being published, one way or another connected with this state. But the question is: is everything in them true? And how to distinguish truth from fiction? After all, so many centuries have passed, many documents of enormous historical value were lost during wars, conquests, fires, or simply by order of a new ruler. But we will still try to reveal some details of the development of Byzantium in order to understand how such a strong state could meet such a pitiful and inglorious end?

History of creation

The Byzantine Empire, often called the Eastern or simply Byzantium, existed from 330 to 1453. With its capital at Constantinople, founded by Constantine I (r. 306-337 AD), the empire varied in size over the centuries, at one time or another, possessing territories located in Italy, the Balkans, the Levant, Lesser Asia and North Africa. The Byzantines developed their own political systems, religious practices, art and architecture.

The history of Byzantium begins in 330 AD. At this time, the legendary Roman Empire was going through hard times - rulers were constantly changing, money was flowing out of the treasury like sand through fingers, the once conquered territories easily won their right to freedom. The capital of the empire, Rome, becomes an unsafe place to live. In 324, Flavius ​​Valerius Aurelius Constantine became emperor, who went down in history only under his last name - Constantine the Great. Having defeated all other rivals, he reigns in the Roman Empire, but decides to take an unprecedented step - moving the capital.

In those days, it was quite calm in the provinces - all the thick of events took place in Rome. Constantine's choice fell on the banks of the Bosphorus, where in the same year the construction of a new city began, which would be given the name Byzantium. After 6 years, Constantine - the first Roman emperor who gave Christianity to the ancient world - announces that from now on the capital of the empire is a new city. Initially, the emperor adhered to the old rules and named the capital New Rome. However, the name did not stick. Since in its place there was once also a city called Byzantium, it was abandoned. Then local residents began to unofficially use another, but more popular name - Constantinople, the city of Constantine.

Constantinople

The new capital had an excellent natural harbor at the entrance to the Golden Horn and, commanding the border between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships through the Bosporus from the Aegean to the Black Sea, linking the lucrative trade between West and East. It should be noted that the new state actively took advantage of this advantage. And, oddly enough, the city was well fortified. A great chain stretched across the entrance to the Golden Horn, and the construction of the massive walls of Emperor Theodosius (between 410 and 413) meant that the city was able to withstand attacks from both sea and land. Over the centuries, as more impressive buildings were added, the cosmopolitan city became one of the finest of any era and by far the richest, most generous and most important Christian city in the world. In general, Byzantium occupied vast territories on the world map - the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, the Aegean and Black Sea coasts of Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania - all of them were once part of Byzantium.

It is necessary to note another, important detail - Christianity became the official religion in the new city. That is, those who were mercilessly persecuted and brutally executed in the Roman Empire found shelter and peace in the new country. Unfortunately, Emperor Constantine did not see the heyday of his brainchild - he died in 337. The new rulers paid increasing attention to the new city on the outskirts of the empire. In 379, Theodosius gained power over the eastern provinces. First as a co-ruler, and in 394 he began to rule independently. He is considered the last Roman emperor, which is generally true - in 395, when he died, the Roman Empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern. That is, Byzantium received the official status of the capital of the new empire, which also became known as Byzantium. This year marks the beginning of a new country on the map of the ancient world and the emerging Middle Ages.

Rulers of Byzantium

The Byzantine emperor also received a new title - he was no longer called Caesar in the Roman manner. The Eastern Empire was ruled by the Basileus (from the Greek Βασιλιας - king). They resided in the magnificent Great Palace of Constantinople and ruled Byzantium with an iron fist as absolute monarchs. The Church gained enormous power in the state. In those days, military talent meant a lot, and citizens expected their rulers to skillfully conduct battles and protect their native walls from the enemy. Therefore, the army in Byzantium was one of the most powerful and powerful. The generals, if they wanted, could easily overthrow the emperor if they saw that he was unable to protect the city and the borders of the empire.

However, in ordinary life, the emperor was the commander-in-chief of the army, the head of the Church and the government, he controlled state finances and appointed or dismissed ministers at will; few rulers before or since have ever wielded such power. The emperor's image appeared on Byzantine coins, which also depicted the chosen successor, often the eldest son, but not always, as there were no clearly established rules of succession. Very often (if not always) the heirs were named after their ancestors, so Constantines, Justinians, and Theodosians were born in the imperial family from generation to generation. The name Konstantin was my favorite.

The heyday of the empire began with the reign of Justinian - from 527 to 565. it is he who will slowly begin to modify the empire - Hellenistic culture will prevail in Byzantium, instead Latin language Greek will be recognized as official. Justinian will also accept the legendary Roman law in Constantinople - many European states will borrow it in subsequent years. It was during his reign that the construction of the symbol of Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia Cathedral (on the site of the former burnt temple), would begin.

Byzantine culture

When talking about Byzantium, it is impossible not to mention the culture of this state. It influenced many subsequent countries of both the West and the East.

The culture of Byzantium is inextricably linked with religion - beautiful icons and mosaics depicting the emperor and his family became the main decoration of temples. Subsequently, some were canonized, and the former rulers became icons that were worshiped.

It is impossible not to note the appearance of the Glagolitic alphabet - the Slavic alphabet through the works of the Byzantine brothers Cyril and Methodius. Byzantine science was inextricably linked with antiquity. Many works of writers of that time were based on the works of ancient Greek scientists and philosophers. Medicine achieved particular success, so much so that even Arab healers used Byzantine works in their work.

The architecture was distinguished by its own special style. As already mentioned, the symbol of Constantinople and all of Byzantium was Hagia Sophia. The temple was so beautiful and majestic that many ambassadors, coming to the city, could not contain their delight.

Looking ahead, we note that after the fall of the city, Sultan Mehmed II was so fascinated by the cathedral that from now on he ordered that mosques throughout the empire be built exactly on the model of Hagia Sophia.

Campaigns against Byzantium

Unfortunately, such a rich and favorably located state could not help but arouse unhealthy interest in itself. Over the centuries of its existence, Byzantium was repeatedly attacked by other states. Already from the 11th century, the Byzantines constantly repelled the raids of the Bulgarians and Arabs. At first things went well. The Bulgarian Tsar Samuil was so shocked by what he saw that he suffered a stroke and died. And the thing was: during a successful attack, the Byzantines captured almost 14 thousand Bulgarian soldiers. Basileus Vasily II ordered to blind everyone and leave one eye for every hundredth soldier. Byzantium showed all its neighbors that it was not worth joking with. For the time being.

The year 1204 was the first news of the end of the empire - the crusaders attacked the city and completely plundered it. The creation of the Latin Empire was announced, all lands were divided between the barons who participated in the campaign. However, here the Byzantines were lucky - after 57 years, Michael Palaiologos expelled all the crusaders from Byzantium and revived the Eastern Empire. And also created a new dynasty of the Palaiologos. But, unfortunately, the former heyday of the empire could not be achieved - the emperors fell under the influence of Genoa and Venice, constantly plundered the treasury and carried out every decree from Italy. Byzantium was weakening.

Gradually, territories were separated from the empire and became free states. By the middle of the 15th century, only a memory remained of the former flower of the Bosphorus. It was easy prey. This is what the Sultan of the young Ottoman Empire, Mehmed II, took advantage of. In 1453 he easily invaded and conquered Constantinople. The city resisted, but not for long and not strongly. Before this sultan, the Rumeli fortress (Rumelihisar) was built on the Bosphorus, which blocked all communications between the city and the Black Sea. The possibility of assistance to Byzantium from other states was also cut off. Several attacks were repelled, the last one - on the night of May 28-29 - was unsuccessful. The last emperor of Byzantium died in battle. The army was exhausted. There was nothing holding the Turks back anymore. Mehmed entered the city on horseback and ordered the beautiful Hagia Sophia to be converted into a mosque. The history of Byzantium ended with the fall of its capital, Constantinople. Pearls of the Bosphorus.

Much of this tone was set by the 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon, who devoted at least three-quarters of his six-volume History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire to what we would unhesitatingly call the Byzantine period.. And although this view has not been mainstream for a long time, we still must start talking about Byzantium as if not from the beginning, but from the middle. After all, Byzantium has neither a founding year nor a founding father, like Rome with Romulus and Remus. Byzantium quietly sprouted from within Ancient Rome, but never broke away from it. After all, the Byzantines themselves did not think of themselves as something separate: they did not know the words “Byzantium” and “Byzantine Empire” and called themselves either “Romeans” (that is, “Romans” in Greek), appropriating the history of Ancient Rome, or “ a race of Christians,” appropriating the entire history of the Christian religion.

We do not recognize Byzantium in early Byzantine history with its praetors, prefects, patricians and provinces, but this recognition will increase as emperors acquire beards, consuls turn into ipates, and senators into synclitics.

Background

The birth of Byzantium will not be understandable without returning to the events of the 3rd century, when a severe economic and political crisis broke out in the Roman Empire, which actually led to the collapse of the state. In 284, Diocletian came to power (like almost all third-century emperors, he was just a Roman officer of humble birth - his father was a slave) and took measures to decentralize power. First, in 286, he divided the empire into two parts, entrusting control of the West to his friend Maximian Herculius, and leaving the East for himself. Then, in 293, wanting to increase the stability of the system of government and ensure the succession of power, he introduced a system of tetrarchy - a four-part government, which was carried out by two senior emperors, the Augustans, and two junior emperors, the Caesars. Each part of the empire had an Augustus and a Caesar (each of whom had their own geographical area of ​​responsibility - for example, the Augustus of the West controlled Italy and Spain, and the Caesar of the West controlled Gaul and Britain). After 20 years, the Augusti had to transfer power to the Caesars, so that they would become Augusti and elect new Caesars. However, this system turned out to be unviable and after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in 305, the empire again plunged into an era of civil wars.

Birth of Byzantium

1. 312 - Battle of the Milvian Bridge

After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, supreme power passed to the former Caesars - Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, who became Augusti, but, contrary to expectations, neither Constantius's son Constantine (later Emperor Constantine I the Great, considered the first emperor of Byzantium) nor Maximian's son Maxentius. Nevertheless, both of them did not abandon imperial ambitions and from 306 to 312 alternately entered into a tactical alliance in order to jointly confront other contenders for power (for example, Flavius ​​Severus, appointed Caesar after the abdication of Diocletian), or, on the contrary, entered into the struggle. Constantine's final victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge over the Tiber River (now within Rome) meant the unification of the western part of the Roman Empire under the rule of Constantine. Twelve years later, in 324, as a result of another war (this time with Licinius, Augustus and ruler of the East of the empire, who was appointed by Galerius), Constantine united East and West.

The miniature in the center depicts the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. From the homilies of Gregory the Theologian. 879-882

MS grec 510 /

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in the Byzantine mind was associated with the idea of ​​​​the birth of a Christian empire. This was facilitated, firstly, by the legend of the miraculous sign of the Cross, which Constantine saw in the sky before the battle - Eusebius of Caesarea tells about this (though in completely different ways) Eusebius of Caesarea(c. 260-340) - Greek historian, author of the first church history. and Lactantium Lactantium(c. 250---325) - Latin writer, apologist for Christianity, author of the essay “On the Deaths of the Persecutors,” dedicated to the events of the era of Diocletian., and secondly, the fact that two edicts were issued about the same time Edict- normative act, decree. on religious freedom, legalizing Christianity and equalizing rights for all religions. And although the publication of the edicts on religious freedom was not directly related to the fight against Maxentius (the first was published by Emperor Galerius in April 311, and the second by Constantine and Licinius in February 313 in Milan), the legend reflects the internal connection of the seemingly independent political steps of Constantine, who was the first to feel that state centralization is impossible without the consolidation of society, primarily in the sphere of worship.

However, under Constantine, Christianity was only one of the candidates for the role of a consolidating religion. The emperor himself was for a long time an adherent of the cult of the Invincible Sun, and the time of his Christian baptism is still the subject of scientific debate.

2. 325 - First Ecumenical Council

In 325, Constantine summoned representatives of local churches to the city of Nicaea Nicaea- now the city of Iznik in Northwestern Turkey., to resolve the dispute between the Alexandrian bishop Alexander and Arius, a presbyter of one of the Alexandrian churches, about whether Jesus Christ was created by God The Arians' opponents summed up their teachings succinctly: "There was a time when [Christ] was not.". This meeting became the first Ecumenical Council - a meeting of representatives of all local churches, with the right to formulate doctrine, which would then be recognized by all local churches It is impossible to say exactly how many bishops participated in the council, since its acts have not been preserved. Tradition calls the number 318. Be that as it may, talking about the “ecumenical” nature of the council can only be done with reservations, since in total there were more than 1,500 episcopal sees at that time.. The First Ecumenical Council is a key stage in the institutionalization of Christianity as an imperial religion: its meetings were held not in a temple, but in the imperial palace, the cathedral was opened by Constantine I himself, and the closing was combined with grandiose celebrations on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of his reign.

First Council of Nicaea. Fresco from the Stavropoleos Monastery. Bucharest, 18th century

Wikimedia Commons

The First Council of Nicaea and the subsequent First Council of Constantinople (meeted in 381) condemned the Arian teaching about the created nature of Christ and the inequality of hypostases in the Trinity, and the Apollinarian teaching about the incompleteness of the perception of human nature by Christ, and formulated the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, which recognized Jesus Christ not created, but born (but at the same time eternal), and all three hypostases have the same nature. The Creed was recognized as true, not subject to further doubts and discussions. The words of the Nice-Constantinopolitan Creed about Christ, which caused the most fierce debate, in the Slavic translation sound like this: “[I believe] in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only begotten, who was born of the Father before all ages; Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, uncreated, consubstantial with the Father, by whom all things were.”.

Never before has any school of thought in Christianity been condemned by the fullness of the universal church and imperial power, and no theological school has been recognized as heresy. The era of the Ecumenical Councils that has begun is an era of struggle between orthodoxy and heresy, which are in constant self- and mutual determination. At the same time, the same teaching could alternately be recognized as a heresy, then as a right faith - depending on the political situation (this was the case in the 5th century), however, the very idea of ​​​​the possibility and necessity of protecting orthodoxy and condemning heresy with the help of the state was questioned in Byzantium has never been installed before.

3. 330 - transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople

Although Rome always remained the cultural center of the empire, the tetrarchs chose cities on the periphery as their capitals, from which it was more convenient for them to repel external attacks: Nicomedia Nicomedia- now Izmit (Türkiye)., Sirmium Sirmium- now Sremska Mitrovica (Serbia)., Milan and Trier. During the period of Western rule, Constantine I moved his residence to Milan, Sirmium, and Thessalonica. His rival Licinius also changed his capital, but in 324, when a war began between him and Constantine, his stronghold in Europe became the ancient city of Byzantium on the banks of the Bosphorus, known from Herodotus.

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror and the Serpent Column. Miniature of Naqqash Osman from the manuscript of “Hüner-name” by Seyyid Lokman. 1584-1588

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During the siege of Byzantium, and then in preparation for decisive battle At Chrysopolis on the Asian shore of the strait, Constantine assessed the position of Byzantium and, having defeated Licinius, immediately began a program to renew the city, personally participating in the marking of the city walls. The city gradually took over the functions of the capital: a Senate was established in it and many Roman Senate families were forcibly transported closer to the Senate. It was in Constantinople, during his lifetime, that Constantine ordered the construction of a tomb for himself. Various wonders of the ancient world were brought to the city, for example, the bronze Serpent Column, created in the 5th century BC in honor of the victory over the Persians at Plataea Battle of Plataea(479 BC) — one of the most important battles of the Greco-Persian wars, as a result of which the ground forces of the Achaemenid Empire were finally defeated..

The 6th century chronicler John Malala says that on May 11, 330, Emperor Constantine appeared at the solemn ceremony of consecration of the city wearing a diadem - a symbol of the power of eastern despots, which his Roman predecessors avoided in every possible way. The shift in the political vector was symbolically embodied in the spatial movement of the center of the empire from west to east, which, in turn, had a decisive influence on the formation of Byzantine culture: the transfer of the capital to territories that had been speaking Greek for a thousand years determined its Greek-speaking character, and Constantinople itself became at the center of the Byzantine's mental map and became identified with the entire empire.

4. 395 - division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western

Despite the fact that in 324 Constantine, having defeated Licinius, formally united the East and West of the empire, ties between its parts remained weak, and cultural differences grew. No more than ten bishops (out of approximately 300 participants) arrived from the western provinces at the First Ecumenical Council; Most of the arrivals were not able to understand Constantine's welcoming speech, which he delivered in Latin, and it had to be translated into Greek.

Half a silicone. Flavius ​​Odoacer on the obverse of a coin from Ravenna. 477 Odoacer is depicted without the imperial diadem - with a bare head, a mop of hair and a mustache. Such an image is uncharacteristic of emperors and is considered “barbaric.”

The Trustees of the British Museum

The final division occurred in 395, when Emperor Theodosius I the Great, who for several months before his death became the sole ruler of East and West, divided the power between his sons Arcadius (East) and Honorius (West). However, formally the West still remained connected with the East, and at the very end of the Western Roman Empire, at the end of the 460s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo I, at the request of the Senate of Rome, made the last unsuccessful attempt to elevate his protege to the Western throne. In 476, the German barbarian mercenary Odoacer deposed the last emperor of the Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus, and sent the imperial insignia (symbols of power) to Constantinople. Thus, from the point of view of the legitimacy of power, the parts of the empire were again united: Emperor Zeno, who ruled at that time in Constantinople, de jure became the sole head of the entire empire, and Odoacer, who received the title of patrician, ruled Italy only as his representative. However, in reality this was no longer reflected in the real political map of the Mediterranean.

5. 451 - Council of Chalcedon

IV Ecumenical (Chalcedonian) Council, convened for the final approval of the doctrine of the incarnation of Christ in one hypostasis and two natures and the complete condemnation of Monophysitism Monophysitism(from the Greek μόνος - the only one and φύσις - nature) - the doctrine that Christ did not have a perfect human nature, since his divine nature replaced it or merged with it during the incarnation. The opponents of the Monophysites were called Dyophysites (from the Greek δύο - two)., led to a deep schism that has not been overcome by the Christian church to this day. The central government continued to flirt with the Monophysites both under the usurper Basiliscus in 475-476, and in the first half of the 6th century, under the emperors Anastasia I and Justinian I. Emperor Zeno in 482 tried to reconcile supporters and opponents of the Council of Chalcedon, without going into dogmatic issues . His conciliatory message, called the Henotikon, ensured peace in the East but led to a 35-year schism with Rome.

The main support of the Monophysites were the eastern provinces - Egypt, Armenia and Syria. In these regions, uprisings on religious grounds regularly broke out and an independent Monophysite hierarchy parallel to the Chalcedonian (that is, recognizing the teachings of the Council of Chalcedon) and their own church institutions were formed, which gradually developed into independent, non-Chalcedonian churches that still exist today - Syro-Jacobite, Armenian and Coptic. The problem finally lost its relevance for Constantinople only in the 7th century, when, as a result of the Arab conquests, the Monophysite provinces were torn away from the empire.

The Rise of Early Byzantium

6. 537 - completion of the construction of the Church of Hagia Sophia under Justinian

Justinian I. Fragment of the mosaic of the church
San Vitale in Ravenna. 6th century

Wikimedia Commons

Under Justinian I (527-565), the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest prosperity. The Code of Civil Law summarized the centuries-long development of Roman law. As a result of military campaigns in the West, it was possible to expand the borders of the empire to include the entire Mediterranean - North Africa, Italy, part of Spain, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily. Sometimes they talk about Justinian's Reconquista. Rome again became part of the empire. Justinian launched extensive construction throughout the empire, and in 537 the creation of a new Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completed. According to legend, the plan of the temple was suggested to the emperor personally by an angel in a vision. Never again in Byzantium had a building of such a scale been created: a grandiose temple, which in Byzantine ceremonial received the name “Great Church,” became the center of power of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

The era of Justinian simultaneously and finally breaks with the pagan past (in 529 the Athens Academy closes Athens Academy - philosophical school in Athens, founded by Plato in the 380s BC. e.) and establishes a line of continuity with antiquity. Medieval culture contrasts itself with early Christian culture, appropriating the achievements of antiquity at all levels - from literature to architecture, but at the same time discarding their religious (pagan) dimension.

Coming from the lower classes, who sought to change the way of life of the empire, Justinian met with rejection from the old aristocracy. It is this attitude, and not the historian’s personal hatred of the emperor, that is reflected in the malicious pamphlet on Justinian and his wife Theodora.

7. 626 - Avar-Slavic siege of Constantinople

The reign of Heraclius (610-641), glorified in court panegyric literature as the new Hercules, marked the last foreign policy successes of early Byzantium. In 626, Heraclius and Patriarch Sergius, who directly defended the city, managed to repel the Avar-Slavic siege of Constantinople (the words opening the akathist to the Mother of God tell precisely about this victory In the Slavic translation, they sound like this: “To the chosen Voivode, victorious, as having been delivered from the evil, let us write thanks to Thy servants, the Mother of God, but as having an invincible power, free us from all troubles, let us call Thee: Rejoice, Unmarried Bride.”), and at the turn of the 20-30s of the 7th century during the Persian campaign against the Sassanid power Sasanian Empire- a Persian state centered on the territory of present-day Iraq and Iran, which existed in 224-651. The provinces in the East that had been lost several years earlier were recaptured: Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Palestine. In 630, the Holy Cross, stolen by the Persians, was solemnly returned to Jerusalem, on which the Savior died. During the solemn procession, Heraclius personally brought the Cross into the city and laid it in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

Under Heraclius, the scientific and philosophical Neoplatonic tradition, coming directly from antiquity, experienced its last rise before the cultural break of the Dark Ages: a representative of the last surviving ancient school in Alexandria, Stephen of Alexandria, came to Constantinople at the imperial invitation to teach.

Plate from the cross with images of a cherub (left) and the Byzantine emperor Heraclius with the Sassanid Shahinshah Khosrow II. Meuse Valley, 1160-70s

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All these successes were nullified by the Arab invasion, which within a few decades wiped out the Sassanids from the face of the earth and forever separated the eastern provinces from Byzantium. Legends tell how the Prophet Muhammad offered Heraclius to convert to Islam, but in the cultural memory of Muslim peoples, Heraclius remained precisely the fighter against the nascent Islam, and not against the Persians. These wars (generally unsuccessful for Byzantium) are told in the 18th century epic poem “The Book of Heraclius” - the oldest monument of writing in Swahili.

Dark Ages and iconoclasm

8. 642 - Arab conquest of Egypt

The first wave of Arab conquests in Byzantine lands lasted eight years - from 634 to 642. As a result, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt were torn away from Byzantium. Having lost the ancient Patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, the Byzantine Church, in fact, lost its universal character and became equal to the Patriarchate of Constantinople, which within the empire had no church institutions equal to it in status.

In addition, having lost the fertile territories that provided it with grain, the empire plunged into a deep internal crisis. The middle of the 7th century saw a reduction in monetary circulation and the decline of cities (both in Asia Minor and in the Balkans, which were no longer threatened by the Arabs, but by the Slavs) - they turned either into villages or into medieval fortresses. Constantinople remained the only major urban center, but the atmosphere in the city changed and the ancient monuments brought there back in the 4th century began to instill irrational fears in the townspeople.

Fragment of a papyrus letter in Coptic by the monks Victor and Psan. Thebes, Byzantine Egypt, approximately 580-640 Translation of a fragment of the letter into English on the Metropolitan Museum of Art website.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Constantinople also lost access to papyrus, which was produced exclusively in Egypt, which led to an increase in the cost of books and, as a consequence, a decline in education. Many literary genres disappeared, the previously flourishing genre of history gave way to prophecy - having lost their cultural connection with the past, the Byzantines grew cold towards their history and lived with a constant feeling of the end of the world. The Arab conquests, which caused this breakdown in the worldview, were not reflected in contemporary literature; their sequence of events is conveyed to us by the monuments of later eras, and the new historical consciousness reflects only the atmosphere of horror, and not the facts. The cultural decline continued for more than a hundred years; the first signs of revival occurred at the very end of the 8th century.

9. 726/730 year According to 9th-century iconoclastic historians, Leo III issued an iconoclastic edict in 726. But modern scientists doubt the reliability of this information: most likely, in 726, Byzantine society began talking about the possibility of iconoclastic measures, and the first real steps date back to 730.- the beginning of iconoclastic disputes

Saint Moky of Amphipolis and the angel killing the iconoclasts. Miniature from the Psalter of Theodore of Caesarea. 1066

The British Library Board, Add MS 19352, f.94r

One of the manifestations of the cultural decline of the second half of the 7th century was the rapid growth of disordered practices of venerating icons (the most zealous scraped and ate the plaster from the icons of saints). This caused rejection among some clergy, who saw in this a threat of a return to paganism. Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) used this discontent to create a new consolidating ideology, taking the first iconoclastic steps in 726/730. But the most fierce debate about icons occurred during the reign of Constantine V Copronymus (741-775). He carried out the necessary military-administrative reforms, significantly strengthening the role of the professional imperial guard (tagmas), and successfully contained the Bulgarian threat on the borders of the empire. The authority of both Constantine and Leo, who repelled the Arabs from the walls of Constantinople in 717-718, was very high, therefore, when in 815, after the doctrine of icon worshipers was approved at the VII Ecumenical Council (787), a new round of war with the Bulgarians provoked a new political crisis, the imperial power returned to iconoclastic policies.

The controversy over icons gave rise to two powerful schools of theological thought. Although the teaching of the iconoclasts is known much less well than the teaching of their opponents, indirect evidence suggests that the thought of the iconoclasts Emperor Constantine Copronymus and the Patriarch of Constantinople John the Grammar (837-843) was no less deeply rooted in the Greek philosophical tradition than the thought of the iconoclastic theologian John Damascene and the head of the anti-iconoclast monastic opposition, Theodore Studite. In parallel, the dispute developed on the ecclesiastical and political plane; the boundaries of the power of the emperor, patriarch, monasticism and episcopate were redefined.

10. 843 - Triumph of Orthodoxy

In 843, under the Empress Theodora and Patriarch Methodius, the final approval of the dogma of icon veneration took place. It became possible thanks to mutual concessions, for example, the posthumous forgiveness of the iconoclast emperor Theophilus, whose widow Theodora was. The holiday “Triumph of Orthodoxy,” organized by Theodora on this occasion, ended the era of the Ecumenical Councils and marked a new stage in the life of the Byzantine state and church. In the Orthodox tradition, he continues to this day, and anathemas of the iconoclasts, named by name, are heard every year on the first Sunday of Lent. Since then, iconoclasm, which became the last heresy condemned by the entire church, began to become mythologized in the historical memory of Byzantium.

The daughters of Empress Theodora learn to venerate icons from their grandmother Theoktista. Miniature from the Madrid Codex Chronicle of John Skylitzes. XII-XIII centuries

Wikimedia Commons

Back in 787, at the VII Ecumenical Council, the theory of the image was approved, according to which, in the words of Basil the Great, “the honor given to the image goes back to the prototype,” which means that worship of the icon is not idolatry. Now this theory has become the official teaching of the church - the creation and worship of sacred images was now not only allowed, but was made a Christian duty. From this time on, an avalanche-like growth of artistic production began, the familiar appearance of an Eastern Christian church with iconic decoration took shape, the use of icons was integrated into liturgical practice and changed the course of worship.

In addition, the iconoclastic dispute stimulated the reading, copying and study of sources to which the opposing sides turned in search of arguments. Overcoming the cultural crisis is largely due to philological work in the preparation of church councils. And the invention of the minuscule Minuscule- writing in lowercase letters, which radically simplified and reduced the cost of book production., may have been related to the needs of the icon-worshipping opposition that existed under the conditions of “samizdat”: icon-worshippers had to quickly copy texts and did not have the means to create expensive uncial Uncial, or majuscule,- letter in capital letters. manuscripts.

Macedonian era

11. 863 - the beginning of the Photian schism

Dogmatic and liturgical differences gradually grew between the Roman and Eastern Churches (primarily regarding the Latin addition to the text of the Creed of words about the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from the Father, but “and from the Son”, the so-called Filioque Filioque- literally “and from the Son” (lat.).). The Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Pope fought for spheres of influence (primarily in Bulgaria, Southern Italy and Sicily). The proclamation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West in 800 dealt a sensitive blow to the political ideology of Byzantium: the Byzantine emperor found a competitor in the person of the Carolingians.

The miraculous salvation of Constantinople by Photius with the help of the robe of the Mother of God. Fresco from the Assumption Princess Monastery. Vladimir, 1648

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Two opposing parties within the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the so-called Ignatians (supporters of Patriarch Ignatius, deposed in 858) and Photians (supporters of the erected - not without scandal - Photius in his place), sought support in Rome. Pope Nicholas used this situation to assert the authority of the papal throne and expand his spheres of influence. In 863, he withdrew the signatures of his envoys who approved the erection of Photius, but Emperor Michael III considered that this was not enough to remove the patriarch, and in 867 Photius anathematized Pope Nicholas. In 869-870, a new council in Constantinople (and to this day recognized by Catholics as the VIII Ecumenical Council) deposed Photius and restored Ignatius. However, after the death of Ignatius, Photius returned to the patriarchal throne for another nine years (877-886).

Formal reconciliation followed in 879-880, but the anti-Latin line laid down by Photius in the District Epistle to the episcopal thrones of the East formed the basis of a centuries-old polemical tradition, echoes of which were heard both during the break between the churches in, and during the discussion of the possibility of church union in the XIII and XV centuries.

12. 895 - creation of the oldest known codex of Plato

E. D. Clarke manuscript page 39 of Plato's writings. 895 The rewriting of the tetralogies was carried out by order of Arethas of Caesarea for 21 gold coins. It is assumed that the scholia (marginal comments) were left by Arethas himself.

At the end of the 9th century there was a new discovery of the ancient heritage in Byzantine culture. A circle formed around Patriarch Photius, which included his disciples: Emperor Leo VI the Wise, Bishop Arethas of Caesarea and other philosophers and scientists. They copied, studied and commented on the works of ancient Greek authors. The oldest and most authoritative list of Plato's works (it is stored under the code E. D. Clarke 39 in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University) was created at this time by order of Arefa.

Among the texts that interested the era's scholars, primarily high-ranking church hierarchs, were pagan works. Arefa ordered copies of the works of Aristotle, Aelius Aristides, Euclid, Homer, Lucian and Marcus Aurelius, and Patriarch Photius included them in his “Myriobiblion” "Myriobiblion"(literally “Ten Thousand Books”) - a review of the books Photius read, which, however, in reality there were not 10 thousand, but only 279. annotations to Hellenistic novels, assessing not their seemingly anti-Christian content, but the style and manner of writing, and at the same time creating a new terminological apparatus of literary criticism, different from that used by ancient grammarians. Leo VI himself created not only solemn speeches on church holidays, which he personally delivered (often improvising) after services, but also wrote Anacreontic poetry in the ancient Greek manner. And the nickname Wise is associated with the collection of poetic prophecies attributed to him about the fall and reconquest of Constantinople, which were remembered back in the 17th century in Rus', when the Greeks tried to persuade Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich to campaign against the Ottoman Empire.

The era of Photius and Leo VI the Wise opens the period of the Macedonian Renaissance (named after the ruling dynasty) in Byzantium, which is also known as the era of encyclopedism or the first Byzantine humanism.

13. 952 - completion of work on the treatise “On the Administration of the Empire”

Christ blesses Emperor Constantine VII. Carved panel. 945

Wikimedia Commons

Under the patronage of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-959), a large-scale project was implemented to codify the knowledge of the Byzantines in all areas human life. The extent of Constantine's direct involvement cannot always be determined with precision, but the personal interest and literary ambitions of the emperor, who knew from childhood that he was not destined to rule, and for most of his life was forced to share the throne with a co-ruler, are beyond doubt. By order of Constantine, the official history of the 9th century was written (the so-called Successor of Theophanes), information was collected about the peoples and lands adjacent to Byzantium (“On the Administration of the Empire”), on the geography and history of the regions of the empire (“On Themes”) Fema- Byzantine military administrative district."), about agriculture ("Geoponics"), about the organization of military campaigns and embassies and about court ceremonials ("On the ceremonies of the Byzantine court"). At the same time, the regulation of church life took place: the Synaxarion and Typikon of the Great Church were created, defining the annual order of commemoration of saints and church services, and several decades later (about 980), Simeon Metaphrastus began a large-scale project to unify hagiographic literature. Around the same time, a comprehensive encyclopedic dictionary, “The Court,” was compiled, including about 30 thousand entries. But the largest encyclopedia of Constantine is an anthology of information from ancient and early Byzantine authors about all spheres of life, conventionally called “Excerpts” It is known that this encyclopedia included 53 sections. Only the section “On Embassies” has reached its entirety, partially “On Virtues and Vices”, “On Conspiracies against Emperors”, “On Opinions”. Among the chapters that have not survived: “On Nations”, “On the Succession of Emperors”, “On Who Invented What”, “On the Caesars”, “On Exploits”, “On Settlements”, “On Hunting”, “On Messages”, “ About speeches”, “About marriages”, “About victory”, “About defeat”, “About strategies”, “About morals”, “About miracles”, “About battles”, “About inscriptions”, “About public administration”, “On church affairs”, “On expression”, “On the coronation of emperors”, “On the death (deposition) of emperors”, “On fines”, “On holidays”, “On predictions”, “On ranks”, “On the cause of wars” ", "About sieges", "About fortresses"..

The nickname Porphyrogenitus was given to the children of the reigning emperors, who were born in the Scarlet Chamber of the Great Palace in Constantinople. Constantine VII, the son of Leo VI the Wise from his fourth marriage, was indeed born in this chamber, but was technically illegitimate. Apparently, the nickname was supposed to emphasize his rights to the throne. His father made him his co-ruler, and after his death, the young Constantine ruled for six years under the tutelage of the regents. In 919, power, under the pretext of protecting Constantine from rebels, was usurped by the military leader Romanus I Lecapinus, he became related to the Macedonian dynasty, marrying his daughter to Constantine, and was then crowned co-ruler. By the time he began his independent reign, Constantine had been formally considered emperor for more than 30 years, and he himself was almost 40.

14. 1018 - conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom

Angels place the imperial crown on Basil II. Miniature from the Psalter of Basil, Bibliotheca Marciana. 11th century

Ms. gr. 17 / Biblioteca Marciana

The reign of Vasily II the Bulgarian Slayers (976-1025) is a time of unprecedented expansion of the church and political influence of Byzantium on neighboring countries: the so-called second (final) baptism of Rus' takes place (the first, according to legend, occurred in the 860s - when the princes Askold and Dir they were allegedly baptized with the boyars in Kiev, where Patriarch Photius sent a bishop specifically for this purpose); in 1018, the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom leads to the liquidation of the autonomous Bulgarian Patriarchate, which had existed for almost 100 years, and the establishment in its place of the semi-independent Ohrid Archdiocese; As a result of the Armenian campaigns, Byzantine possessions in the East expanded.

In domestic policy Vasily was forced to take tough measures to limit the influence of large landowning clans, which actually formed their own armies in the 970-980s during civil wars that challenged Vasily’s power. He tried to take tough measures to stop the enrichment of large landowners (the so-called dinates Dinat ( from Greek δυνατός) - strong, powerful.), in some cases even resorting to direct confiscation of land. But this brought only a temporary effect, centralization in administrative and military sphere neutralized powerful rivals, but in the long term made the empire vulnerable to new threats - the Normans, Seljuks and Pechenegs. The Macedonian dynasty, which ruled for more than a century and a half, formally ended only in 1056, but in fact, already in the 1020-30s, people from bureaucratic families and influential clans received real power.

Descendants awarded Vasily the nickname Bulgarian Slayer for his cruelty in the wars with the Bulgarians. For example, after winning the decisive battle near Mount Belasitsa in 1014, he ordered 14 thousand captives to be blinded at once. It is not known exactly when this nickname originated. It is certain that this happened until the end of the 12th century, when, according to the historian of the 13th century George Acropolite, the Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) began to ravage Byzantine cities in the Balkans, proudly calling himself a Roman fighter and thereby opposing himself to Vasily.

Crisis of the 11th century

15. 1071 - Battle of Manzikert

Battle of Manzikert. Miniature from the book “On the Misfortunes of Famous People” by Boccaccio. 15th century

Bibliothèque nationale de France

The political crisis that began after the death of Vasily II continued in the middle of the 11th century: clans continued to compete, dynasties constantly replaced each other - from 1028 to 1081, 11 emperors changed on the Byzantine throne, a similar frequency did not exist even at the turn of the 7th-8th centuries . From the outside, the Pechenegs and Seljuk Turks put pressure on Byzantium In just a few decades in the 11th century, the power of the Seljuk Turks conquered the territories of modern Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan and became the main threat to Byzantium in the East.- the latter, having won the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 Manzikert- now the small town of Malazgirt on the easternmost tip of Turkey next to Lake Van., deprived the empire of most of its territories in Asia Minor. No less painful for Byzantium was the full-scale rupture of church relations with Rome in 1054, which later became known as the Great Schism. Schism(from Greek σχίζμα) - gap., because of which Byzantium finally lost church influence in Italy. However, contemporaries almost did not notice this event and did not attach due importance to it.

However, it was precisely this era of political instability, fragility of social boundaries and, as a consequence, high social mobility that gave birth to the figure of Michael Psellus, unique even for Byzantium, an erudite and official who took an active part in the enthronement of emperors (his central work “Chronography” is very autobiographical) , thought about the most complex theological and philosophical questions, studied pagan Chaldean oracles, created works in every imaginable genre - from literary criticism to hagiography. The situation of intellectual freedom gave impetus to a new typically Byzantine version of Neoplatonism: in the title of “ipata of philosophers” Ipat of philosophers- in fact, the main philosopher of the empire, the head of the philosophical school in Constantinople. Psellus was replaced by John Italus, who studied not only Plato and Aristotle, but also such philosophers as Ammonius, Philoponus, Porphyry and Proclus and, at least according to his opponents, taught about the transmigration of souls and the immortality of ideas.

Komnenian revival

16. 1081 - Alexei I Komnenos came to power

Christ blesses Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Miniature from “Dogmatic Panoplia” by Euthymius Zigaben. 12th century

In 1081, as a result of a compromise with the clans of Douk, Melissena and Palaiologi, the Comneni family came to power. It gradually monopolized the entire state power and, thanks to complex dynastic marriages, absorbed former rivals. Beginning with Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118), Byzantine society became aristocratized, social mobility decreased, intellectual freedoms were curtailed, and the imperial government actively interfered in the spiritual sphere. The beginning of this process was marked by the church-state condemnation of John Italus for “Palatonian ideas” and paganism in 1082. This is followed by the condemnation of Leo of Chalcedon, who opposed the confiscation of church property to cover military needs (at that time Byzantium was at war with the Sicilian Normans and Pechenegs) and almost accused Alexei of iconoclasm. Massacres of Bogomils take place Bogomilism- a doctrine that arose in the Balkans in the 10th century, largely going back to the religion of the Manichaeans. According to the Bogomils, the physical world was created by Satan cast down from heaven. The human body was also his creation, but the soul was still a gift from the good God. The Bogomils did not recognize the institution of the church and often opposed the secular authorities, raising numerous uprisings., one of them, Vasily, was even burned at the stake - a unique phenomenon for Byzantine practice. In 1117, Aristotle's commentator Eustratius of Nicea was put on trial for heresy.

Meanwhile, contemporaries and immediate descendants remembered Alexei I rather as a ruler who was successful in his foreign policy: he managed to conclude an alliance with the crusaders and deal a sensitive blow to the Seljuks in Asia Minor.

In the satire "Timarion" the narration is told from the perspective of the hero who has traveled to afterworld. In his story, he also mentions John Italus, who wanted to take part in the conversation of ancient Greek philosophers, but was rejected by them: “I also witnessed how Pythagoras sharply pushed away John Italus, who wanted to join this community of sages. “You rabble,” he said, “having put on the Galilean robe, which they call the divine holy vestments, in other words, having received baptism, do you strive to communicate with us, whose life was given to science and knowledge?” Either throw off this vulgar dress, or leave our brotherhood right now!’” (translation by S. V. Polyakova, N. V. Felenkovskaya).

17. 1143 - Manuel I Komnenos came to power

The trends that emerged under Alexios I were further developed under Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180). He sought to establish personal control over the church life of the empire, sought to unify theological thought and himself took part in church disputes. One of the questions in which Manuel wanted to have his say was the following: which hypostases of the Trinity accept the sacrifice during the Eucharist - only God the Father or both the Son and the Holy Spirit? If the second answer is correct (and this is exactly what was decided at the council of 1156-1157), then the same Son will be both the one sacrificed and the one who accepts it.

Manuel's foreign policy was marked by failures in the East (the worst was the disheartening defeat of the Byzantines at Myriokephalos in 1176 at the hands of the Seljuks) and attempts at diplomatic rapprochement with the West. Manuel saw the ultimate goal of Western policy as unification with Rome based on the recognition of the supreme power of a single Roman emperor, who was to become Manuel himself, and the unification of the churches that were officially divided in . However, this project was not implemented.

In the era of Manuel, literary creativity became a profession, literary circles emerged with their own artistic fashion, elements of the folk language penetrated into aristocratic court literature (they can be found in the works of the poet Theodore Prodromus or the chronicler Constantine Manasses), the genre of the Byzantine love story emerged, the arsenal of expressive means expanded and the measure of the author's self-reflection is growing.

Decline of Byzantium

18. 1204 - fall of Constantinople at the hands of the crusaders

The reign of Andronikos I Komnenos (1183-1185) saw a political crisis: he pursued a populist policy (reduced taxes, broke off relations with the West and brutally dealt with corrupt officials), which turned a significant part of the elite against him and aggravated the foreign policy situation of the empire.

The Crusaders attack Constantinople. Miniature from the chronicle of “The Conquest of Constantinople” by Geoffroy de Villehardouin. Around 1330, Villehardouin was one of the leaders of the campaign.

Bibliothèque nationale de France

An attempt to establish a new dynasty of Angels did not bear fruit; society was deconsolidated. Added to this were failures on the periphery of the empire: an uprising broke out in Bulgaria; the crusaders captured Cyprus; The Sicilian Normans ravaged Thessalonica. The struggle between claimants to the throne within the Angel family gave European countries a formal reason to intervene. On April 12, 1204, participants in the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople. We read the most vivid artistic description of these events in the “History” of Niketas Choniates and the postmodern novel “Baudolino” by Umberto Eco, which sometimes literally copies the pages of Choniates.

On the ruins of the former empire, several states arose under Venetian rule, only to a small extent inheriting Byzantine state institutions. The Latin Empire, centered in Constantinople, was more of a feudal formation on the Western European model, and the duchies and kingdoms that arose in Thessalonica, Athens and the Peloponnese had the same character.

Andronikos was one of the most eccentric rulers of the empire. Nikita Choniates says that he ordered a portrait of himself to be created in one of the churches of the capital in the guise of a poor farmer in high boots and with a scythe in his hand. There were also legends about the bestial cruelty of Andronicus. He organized public burnings of his opponents at the hippodrome, during which the executioners pushed the victim into the fire with sharp lances, and threatened to roast the reader of Hagia Sophia, George Disipata, who dared to condemn his cruelty, to roast him on a spit and send him to his wife instead of food.

19. 1261 - recapture of Constantinople

The loss of Constantinople led to the emergence of three Greek states that equally claimed to be the rightful heirs of Byzantium: the Nicaean Empire in northwestern Asia Minor under the Lascarean dynasty; the Empire of Trebizond in the northeastern part of the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor, where the descendants of the Komnenos settled - the Great Komnenos, who took the title "emperors of the Romans", and the Kingdom of Epirus in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula with the dynasty of Angels. The revival of the Byzantine Empire in 1261 took place on the basis of the Nicene Empire, which pushed aside its competitors and skillfully used the help of the German emperor and the Genoese in the fight against the Venetians. As a result, the Latin emperor and patriarch fled, and Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople, was re-crowned and proclaimed “the new Constantine.”

In his policy, the founder of the new dynasty tried to reach a compromise with the Western powers, and in 1274 he even agreed to a church union with Rome, which alienated the Greek episcopate and the Constantinople elite.

Despite the fact that the empire was formally revived, its culture lost its former “Constantinople-centricity”: The Palaiologists were forced to put up with the presence of the Venetians in the Balkans and the significant autonomy of Trebizond, whose rulers formally abandoned the title of “Roman emperors”, but in reality did not abandon their imperial ambitions.

A striking example of the imperial ambitions of Trebizond is the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia of the Wisdom of God, built there in the mid-13th century and still making a strong impression today. This temple simultaneously contrasted Trebizond with Constantinople with its Hagia Sophia, and on a symbolic level transformed Trebizond into the new Constantinople.

20. 1351 - approval of the teachings of Gregory Palamas

Saint Gregory Palamas. Icon of the master of Northern Greece. Early 15th century

The second quarter of the 14th century marks the beginning of the Palamite disputes. Saint Gregory Palamas (1296-1357) was an original thinker who developed the controversial doctrine of the difference in God between the divine essence (with which man can neither unite nor know it) and the uncreated divine energies (with which union is possible) and defended the possibility contemplation through the “mental sense” of the Divine light, revealed, according to the Gospels, to the apostles during the transfiguration of Christ For example, in the Gospel of Matthew this light is described as follows: “And after six days Jesus took Peter, James and John his brother, and led them up a high mountain alone, and was transfigured before them: and His face shone like the sun, and His clothes They became white as light” (Matthew 17:1-2)..

In the 40s and 50s of the 14th century, theological dispute was closely intertwined with political confrontation: Palamas, his supporters (patriarchs Callistus I and Philotheus Kokkin, Emperor John VI Cantacuzene) and opponents (the philosopher Barlaam of Calabria, who later converted to Catholicism, and his followers Gregory Akindinus, Patriarch John IV Kalek, philosopher and writer Nicephorus Grigora) alternately won tactical victories and suffered defeat.

The Council of 1351, which confirmed the victory of Palamas, nevertheless did not put an end to the dispute, echoes of which were heard in the 15th century, but forever closed the path for anti-Palamites to the highest church and state power. Some researchers follow Igor Medvedev I. P. Medvedev. Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries. St. Petersburg, 1997. They see in the thoughts of the anti-Palamites, especially Nikephoros Gregoras, tendencies close to the ideas of the Italian humanists. Humanistic ideas were even more fully reflected in the work of the Neoplatonist and ideologist of the pagan renewal of Byzantium, George Gemistus Plitho, whose works were destroyed by the official church.

Even in serious scientific literature, you can sometimes see that the words “(anti)Palamites” and “(anti)Hesychasts” are used as synonyms. This is not entirely true. Hesychasm (from the Greek ἡσυχία [hesychia] - silence) as a hermitic prayer practice that provides the opportunity for direct experiential communication with God, was substantiated in the works of theologians of earlier eras, for example, by Simeon the New Theologian in the 10th-11th centuries.

21. 1439 - Ferraro-Florentine Union

Union of Florence by Pope Eugene IV. 1439 Compiled in two languages ​​- Latin and Greek.

British Library Board/Bridgeman Images/Fotodom

By the beginning of the 15th century, it became obvious that the Ottoman military threat was calling into question the very existence of the empire. Byzantine diplomacy actively sought support in the West, and negotiations were held on the unification of churches in exchange for military assistance from Rome. In the 1430s, a fundamental decision on unification was made, but the subject of bargaining was the location of the council (on Byzantine or Italian territory) and its status (whether it would be designated in advance as “unification”). Eventually the meetings took place in Italy - first in Ferrara, then in Florence and Rome. In June 1439, the Ferraro-Florentine Union was signed. This meant that formally the Byzantine Church recognized the correctness of Catholics on all controversial issues, including the issue. But the union did not find support from the Byzantine episcopate (the head of its opponents was Bishop Mark Eugenicus), which led to the coexistence of two parallel hierarchies in Constantinople - Uniate and Orthodox. 14 years later, immediately after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottomans decided to rely on the anti-Uniates and installed the follower of Mark Eugenicus, Gennady Scholarius, as patriarch, but the union was formally abolished only in 1484.

If in the history of the church the union remained only a short-lived failed experiment, then its mark on the history of culture is much more significant. Figures like Bessarion of Nicea, a disciple of the neo-pagan Pletho, a Uniate metropolitan, and later a cardinal and titular Latin patriarch of Constantinople, played a key role in the transmission of Byzantine (and ancient) culture to the West. Vissarion, whose epitaph contains the words: “Through your labors, Greece moved to Rome,” translated Greek classical authors into Latin, patronized Greek emigrant intellectuals, and donated his library, which included more than 700 manuscripts (at that time the most extensive private library in Europe), to Venice. which became the basis of the Library of St. Mark.

The Ottoman state (named after the first ruler, Osman I) arose in 1299 from the ruins of the Seljuk Sultanate in Anatolia and throughout the 14th century increased its expansion in Asia Minor and the Balkans. A brief respite for Byzantium was given by the confrontation between the Ottomans and the troops of Tamerlane at the turn of the 14th-15th centuries, but with the coming to power of Mehmed I in 1413, the Ottomans again began to threaten Constantinople.

22. 1453 - fall of the Byzantine Empire

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror. Painting by Gentile Bellini. 1480

Wikimedia Commons

The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, made unsuccessful attempts to repel the Ottoman threat. By the early 1450s, Byzantium retained only a small region in the vicinity of Constantinople (Trebizond was virtually independent of Constantinople), and the Ottomans controlled both most of Anatolia and the Balkans (Thessalonica fell in 1430, the Peloponnese was devastated in 1446). In search of allies, the emperor turned to Venice, Aragon, Dubrovnik, Hungary, the Genoese, and the Pope, but only the Venetians and Rome offered real help (and very limited). In the spring of 1453, the battle for the city began, on May 29 Constantinople fell, and Constantine XI died in battle. Many incredible stories have been told about his death, the circumstances of which are unknown to scientists; In popular Greek culture for many centuries there was a legend that the last Byzantine king was turned into marble by an angel and now rests in a secret cave at the Golden Gate, but is about to awaken and expel the Ottomans.

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror did not break the line of succession with Byzantium, but inherited the title of Roman Emperor, supported the Greek Church, and stimulated the development of Greek culture. His reign was marked by projects that at first glance seem fantastic. The Greek-Italian Catholic humanist George of Trebizond wrote about building a worldwide empire led by Mehmed, in which Islam and Christianity would unite into one religion. And the historian Mikhail Kritovul created a story in praise of Mehmed - a typical Byzantine panegyric with all the obligatory rhetoric, but in honor of the Muslim ruler, who, nevertheless, was called not a sultan, but in the Byzantine manner - basileus.