Warships 16th-18th centuries. Sailing Ships in the 18th Century

For now, let’s quickly and briefly “run” to the 15th century, and then we’ll discuss the issue in more detail. So let's begin:

The first sailing ships appeared in Egypt around 3000 BC. e. This is evidenced by the paintings decorating ancient Egyptian vases. However, the birthplace of the boats depicted on the vases is apparently not the Nile Valley, but the nearby Persian Gulf. This is confirmed by a model of a similar boat found in the Obeid tomb, in the city of Eridu, which stood on the shores of the Persian Gulf.

In 1969, the Norwegian scientist Thor Heyerdahl made an interesting attempt to test the assumption that a ship equipped with a sail, made from papyrus reeds, could sail not only along the Nile, but also on the open sea. This vessel, essentially a raft, 15 m long, 5 m wide and 1.5 m high, with a 10 m high mast and a single square sail, was steered by a steering oar.

Before the use of wind, floating craft either moved with oars or were pulled by people or animals walking along the banks of rivers and canals. The ships made it possible to transport heavy and bulky cargo, which was much more productive than transporting animals by teams on land. Bulk cargo was also transported primarily by water.

Papyrus vessel

The large naval expedition of the Egyptian ruler Hatshepsut, undertaken in the first half of the 15th century, is historically attested. BC e. This expedition, which historians also consider to be a trading expedition, traveled through the Red Sea to ancient country Punt on the east coast of Africa (roughly modern Somalia). The ships returned heavily laden with various goods and slaves.

When sailing short distances, the Phoenicians used mainly light merchant ships that had oars and a straight rack sail. Vessels designed for long-distance voyages and warships looked much more impressive. Phenicia, unlike Egypt, had very favorable natural conditions for the construction of a fleet: near the coast, on the slopes of the Lebanese mountains, forests grew, dominated by the famous Lebanese cedar and oak, as well as other valuable tree species.

In addition to improving sea vessels, the Phoenicians left another remarkable legacy - the word “galley”, which probably entered all European languages. Phoenician ships set sail from the large port cities of Sidon, Ugarit, Arvada, Gebala, etc., where there were also large shipyards.

Historical materials also speak of the Phoenicians sailing south across the Red Sea to Indian Ocean. The Phoenicians are credited with the honor of the first voyage around Africa at the end of the 7th century. BC e., i.e. almost 2000 years before Vasco da Gama.

The Greeks already in the 9th century. BC e. They learned from the Phoenicians to build ships that were remarkable for that time and began colonizing the surrounding territories early. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. their penetration area covered western shores Mediterranean Sea, the entire Pontus Euxine (Black Sea) and the Aegean coast of Asia Minor.

Not a single ancient wooden ship or part of it has survived, and this does not allow us to clarify the idea of ​​​​the main types of galleys, which has developed on the basis of written and other historical materials. Divers and scuba divers continue to survey the seabed at the sites of ancient naval battles in which hundreds of ships were lost. Their shape and internal structure can be judged by indirect evidence - for example, by accurate sketches of the location of clay vessels and metal objects preserved where the ship lay. And yet, in the absence of wooden parts of the hull, one cannot do without the help of painstaking analysis and imagination.

The ship was kept on course using a steering oar, which compared to the later rudder had at least two advantages: it made it possible to turn a stationary ship and to easily replace a damaged or broken steering oar. Merchant ships were wide and had ample hold space to accommodate cargo.

The ship is a Greek war galley, approximately 5th century. BC e., the so-called bireme. With rows of oars located on the sides in two tiers, she naturally had greater speed than a ship of the same size with half the number of oars. In the same century, triremes also became widespread - warships with three "floors" of rowers. A similar arrangement of galleys is the contribution of ancient Greek craftsmen to the design of sea vessels. Military kinkerems were not “long ships”; they had a deck, internal quarters for soldiers and a particularly powerful ram, bound with copper sheets, located in front at water level, which was used to break through the sides of enemy ships during naval battles. The Greeks adopted a similar combat device from the Phoenicians, who used it in the 8th century. BC e.

Although the Greeks were capable, well-trained navigators, sea travel at that time was dangerous. Not every ship reached its destination as a result of either a shipwreck or a pirate attack.
The galleys of ancient Greece plied almost the entire Mediterranean and Black Seas; there is evidence of their penetration through Gibraltar to the north. Here they reached Britain, and possibly Scandinavia. Their voyage routes are shown on the map.

During the first big clash with Carthage (in the First Punic War) the Romans realized that they could not hope for victory without having a strong navy. With the help of Greek specialists, they quickly built 120 large galleys and transferred to the sea their method of combat, which they used on land - individual combat of warrior against warrior with personal weapons. The Romans used the so-called "crows" - boarding bridges. Along these bridges, which were pierced with a sharp hook into the deck of the enemy ship, depriving it of the ability to maneuver, the Roman legionaries burst onto the enemy deck and started a battle in their characteristic manner.

The Roman fleet, like its contemporary Greek fleet, consisted of two main types of ships: “rounded” merchant ships and slender war galleys

Certain improvements can be noted in sailing equipment. On the main mast (mainmast) a large quadrangular straight sail is retained, which is sometimes supplemented by two small triangular upper sails. A smaller quadrangular sail appears on the forward inclined mast - the bowsprit. Increasing the total area of ​​the sails increased the force used to propel the ship. However, the sails continue to be an additional propulsion device; the main one remains the oars, not shown in the figure.
The importance of the sail, however, undoubtedly increased, especially on long voyages, which took place as far as India. In this case, the discovery of the Greek navigator Hippalus helped: the August southwest and January northeast monsoons contributed to the maximum use of sails and at the same time reliably indicated the direction, much like a compass much later. The road from Italy to India and the return journey, with an intermediate crossing by caravans and ships along the Nile from Alexandria to the Red Sea, lasted about a year. Previously, the rowing journey along the shores of the Arabian Sea was much longer.

During their trading voyages, the Romans used numerous Mediterranean ports. Some of them have already been mentioned, but one of the first places should be Alexandria, located in the Nile Delta, whose importance as a transit point increased as Rome’s trade turnover with India and the Far East grew.

For more than half a millennium, the Viking knights of the high seas kept Europe in fear. They owe their mobility and omnipresence to drakars - true masterpieces of shipbuilding art

The Vikings made long sea voyages on these ships. They discovered Iceland, the southern coast of Greenland, and long before Columbus they visited North America. The inhabitants of the Baltic, Mediterranean and Byzantium saw the snake heads on the stems of their ships. Together with the squads of the Slavs, they settled on the great trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks.

The main propulsion device of the drakar was a rack sail with an area of ​​70 m2 or more, sewn from separate vertical panels, richly decorated with gold braid, drawings of the coats of arms of leaders or various signs and symbols. Ray rose with the sail. The high mast was supported by stays running from it to the sides and to the ends of the ship. The sides were protected by richly painted shields of warriors. The silhouette of the Scandinavian vessel is one of a kind. It has many aesthetic advantages. The basis for recreating this vessel was a drawing of the famous carpet from Baye, telling about the landing of William the Conqueror in England in 1066.

At the beginning of the 15th century, two-masted coggs began to be built. The further development of world shipbuilding was marked by the transition to three-masted ships in the mid-15th century. This type of vessel first appeared in northern Europe in 1475. Its foremast and mizzen masts were borrowed from Mediterranean Venetian ships.

The first three-masted ship to enter the Baltic Sea was the French ship La Rochelle. The plating of this ship, which had a length of 43 m and a width of 12 m, was not laid face to face, like tiles on the roof of a house, as was done before, but smoothly: one board close to the other. And although this method of plating was known before, nevertheless, the merit of its invention is attributed to a shipbuilder from Brittany named Julian, who called this method “carvel” or “craveel”. The name of the casing later became the name of the type of ship - “caravel”. Caravels were more elegant than coggs and had better sailing equipment, so it was no coincidence that medieval discoverers chose these durable, fast-moving and capacious ships for overseas campaigns. Characteristic features of caravels are high sides, deep sheer decks in the middle part of the ship and mixed sailing equipment. Only the foremast carried a quadrangular straight sail. The lateen sails on the slanting yards of the main and mizzen masts allowed the ships to sail steeply to the wind.

In the first half of the 15th century, the largest cargo ship (possibly up to 2000 tons) was a three-masted, double-decker carrack, probably of Portuguese origin. In the 15th-16th centuries, composite masts appeared on sailing ships, which carried several sails at once. The area of ​​the topsails and cruises (upper sails) was increased, making it easier to control and maneuver the vessel. The ratio of body length to width ranged from 2:1 to 2.5:1. As a result, the seaworthiness of these so-called "round" ships improved, which made it possible to carry out safer long voyages to America and India and even around the world. There was no clear distinction between sailing merchant ships and military ships at that time; For a number of centuries, the typical military vessel was only a rowing galley. The galleys were built with one or two masts and carried lateen sails.

"Vasa" Swedish warship

At the beginning of the 17th century. Sweden has significantly strengthened its position in Europe. The founder of the new royal dynasty, Gustav I Vasa, did a lot to bring the country out of medieval backwardness. He freed Sweden from Danish rule and carried out a reformation, subordinating the previously all-powerful church to the state.
Was walking thirty years war 1618-1648 Sweden, which claimed to be one of the leading countries in Europe, sought to finally consolidate its dominant position in the Baltic.

Sweden's main rival in the western part of the Baltic Sea was Denmark, which owned both banks of the Sound and the most important islands of the Baltic Sea. But it was a very strong opponent. Then the Swedes concentrated all their attention on the eastern shores of the sea and, after long wars, captured the cities of Yam, Koporye, Karela, Oreshek and Ivan-gorod, which had long belonged to Russia, thus depriving Russian state access to the Baltic Sea.
However, Gustav II Adolf, the new king of the Vasa dynasty (1611-1632), wanted to achieve complete Swedish domination in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea and began to create a strong navy.

In 1625, the Stockholm Royal Shipyard received a large order for the simultaneous construction of four large ships. The king showed the greatest interest in the construction of a new flagship. This ship was named "Vasa" - in honor of the Swedish royal Vasa dynasty, to which Gustav II Adolf belonged.

The best shipbuilders, artists, sculptors, and woodcarvers were involved in the construction of Vasa. The Dutch master Hendrik Hibertson, a well-known shipbuilder in Europe, was invited as the main builder. Two years later, the ship was safely launched and towed to the outfitting pier, located just under the windows of the royal palace.

Galion "Golden Hind" ("Golden Hind")

The ship was built in the 60s of the 16th century in England and was originally called "Pelican". On it, the English navigator Francis Drake, in 1577-1580, as part of a squadron of five ships, undertook a pirate expedition to the West Indies and made his second circumnavigation of the world after Magellan. In honor of the excellent seaworthiness of his ship, Drake renamed it the "Golden Hind" and installed a figurine of a doe made of pure gold in the bow of the ship. The length of the galleon is 18.3 m, width 5.8 m, draft 2.45 m. This is one of the smallest galleons.

Galleasses were much larger ships than galleys: they had three masts with lateen sails, two large steering oars in the stern, two decks (the lower one for oarsmen, the upper one for soldiers and cannons), and a surface ram in the bow. These warships turned out to be durable: even in the 18th century, almost all maritime powers continued to replenish their fleets with galleys and galleasses. During the 16th century, the appearance of the sailing ship as a whole was formed and preserved until the mid-19th century. Ships increased significantly in size; if in the 15th century ships over 200 tons were rare, then by the end of the 16th century single giants appeared reaching 2000 tons, and ships with a displacement of 700-800 tons ceased to be rare. From the beginning of the 16th century, oblique sails began to be used more and more often in European shipbuilding, at first in their pure form, as was done in Asia, but by the end of the century mixed sailing equipment had spread. Artillery was improved - the bombards of the 15th and the culverins of the early 16th centuries were still unsuitable for arming ships, but by the end of the 16th century the problems associated with casting were largely resolved and a naval cannon of the usual type appeared. Around 1500, cannon ports were invented; it became possible to place cannons in several tiers, and the upper deck was freed from them, which had a positive effect on the stability of the ship. The sides of the ship began to roll inward, so the guns on the upper tiers were closer to the axis of symmetry of the ship. Finally, in the 16th century, many European countries regular military fleets appeared. All these innovations gravitate towards the beginning of the 16th century, but, given the time required for implementation, they spread only towards the end. Again, the shipbuilders also needed to gain experience, because at first ships of the new type had the annoying habit of capsizing immediately upon leaving the slipway.

During the 16th century, the appearance of the sailing ship as a whole was formed and preserved until the mid-19th century. Ships increased significantly in size; if in the 15th century ships over 200 tons were rare, then by the end of the 16th century single giants appeared reaching 2000 tons, and ships with a displacement of 700-800 tons ceased to be rare. From the beginning of the 16th century, oblique sails began to be used more and more often in European shipbuilding, at first in their pure form, as was done in Asia, but by the end of the century mixed sailing equipment had spread. Artillery was improved - the bombards of the 15th and the culverins of the early 16th centuries were still unsuitable for arming ships, but by the end of the 16th century the problems associated with casting were largely resolved and a naval cannon of the usual type appeared. Around 1500, cannon ports were invented; it became possible to place cannons in several tiers, and the upper deck was freed from them, which had a positive effect on the stability of the ship. The sides of the ship began to roll inward, so the guns on the upper tiers were closer to the axis of symmetry of the ship. Finally, in the 16th century, regular navies appeared in many European countries. All these innovations gravitate towards the beginning of the 16th century, but, given the time required for implementation, they spread only towards the end. Again, the shipbuilders also needed to gain experience, because at first ships of the new type had the annoying habit of capsizing immediately upon leaving the slipway.

In the first half of the 16th century, a ship appeared with fundamentally new properties and a completely different purpose than the ships that existed before. This ship was intended to fight for supremacy at sea by destroying enemy warships on the high seas with artillery fire and combined significant autonomy at that time with powerful weapons. The rowing ships that existed up to this point could only dominate over a narrow strait, and even then if they were based in a port on the shore of this strait, in addition, their power was determined by the number of troops on board, and artillery ships could act independently of the infantry. The new type of ships began to be called linear - that is, main (like "linear infantry", "linear tanks", the name "battleship" has nothing to do with lining up in a line - if they were built, it was in a column).

The first battleships that appeared on the northern seas, and later on the Mediterranean Sea, were small - 500-800 tons, which approximately corresponded to the displacement of large transports of that period. Not even the biggest ones. But the largest transports were built for themselves by wealthy merchant companies, and battleships were ordered by states that were not rich at that time. These ships were armed with 50 - 90 guns, but these were not very strong guns - mostly 12-pounders, with a small admixture of 24-pounders and a very large admixture of small-caliber guns and culverins. Seaworthiness did not stand up to any criticism - even in the 18th century, ships were still built without drawings (they were replaced by a mock-up), and the number of guns was calculated based on the width of the ship measured in steps - that is, it varied depending on the length of the legs of the shipyard's chief engineer. But this was in the 18th, and in the 16th the correlation between the width of the ship and the weight of the guns was not known (especially since it does not exist). Simply put, ships were built without a theoretical basis, only on the basis of experience, which was almost non-existent in the 16th and early 17th centuries. But the main trend was clearly visible - guns in such numbers could no longer be considered as auxiliary weapons, and a purely sailing design indicated the desire to obtain an ocean-going ship. Even then, battleships were characterized by armament at the level of 1.5 pounds per ton of displacement.

The faster the ship was, the fewer guns it could have in relation to its displacement, since the more the engine and masts weighed. Not only did the masts themselves, with a mass of ropes and sails, weigh a fair amount, but they also shifted the center of gravity upward, therefore they had to be balanced by placing more cast-iron ballast in the hold.

Battleships of the 16th century still had insufficiently advanced sailing equipment for sailing in the Mediterranean Sea (especially in its eastern part) and the Baltic. The storm playfully blew the Spanish squadron out of the English Channel.

Already in the 16th century, Spain, England and France together had about 60 battleships, with Spain more than half of this number. In the 17th century, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey and Portugal joined this trio.

Ships of the 17th-18th centuries

In northern Europe, at the beginning of the 17th century, a new type of vessel appeared, similar to a flute - a three-masted pinnace (pinnace). The same type of ship includes the galion, which appeared in the mid-16th century - a warship of Portuguese origin, which later became the basis of the fleets of the Spaniards and the British. On a galleon, for the first time, guns were mounted both above and below the main deck, leading to the construction of battery decks; the guns stood on the sides and fired through the ports. The displacement of the largest Spanish galleons of 1580-1590 was 1000 tons, and the ratio of hull length to width was 4:1. The absence of high superstructures and a long hull allowed these ships to sail faster and steeper to the wind than “round” ships. To increase speed, the number and area of ​​sails were increased, and additional sails appeared - foxes and underlisels. At that time, decorations were considered a symbol of wealth and power - all state and royal ships were luxuriously decorated. The distinction between warships and merchant ships became more distinct. In the middle of the 17th century, frigates with up to 60 guns on two decks, and smaller warships such as a corvette, sloop, bombard and others began to be built in England.

By the middle of the 17th century, battleships had grown significantly, some already up to 1500 tons. The number of guns remained the same - 50-80 pieces, but 12-pounder guns remained only on the bow, stern and upper deck; guns of 24 and 48 pounds were placed on the other decks. Accordingly, the hull became stronger - it could withstand 24-pound shells. Overall, the 17th century is characterized low level confrontations at sea. England throughout almost its entire period could not deal with internal troubles. Holland preferred small ships, relying more on their numbers and the experience of the crews. France, powerful at that time, tried to impose its hegemony on Europe through wars on land; the French were of little interest in the sea. Sweden reigned supreme in the Baltic Sea and did not lay claim to other bodies of water. Spain and Portugal were ruined and often found themselves dependent on France. Venice and Genoa quickly turned into third-rate states. The Mediterranean Sea was divided - the western part went to Europe, the eastern part to Turkey. Neither side sought to upset the balance. However, the Maghreb found itself within the European sphere of influence - English, French and Dutch squadrons put an end to piracy during the 17th century. The greatest naval powers of the 17th century had 20-30 battleships, the rest had only a few.

Türkiye also began building battleships from the end of the 16th century. But they were still significantly different from European models. Especially the shape of the hull and sailing equipment. Turkish battleships were significantly faster than European ones (this was especially true in Mediterranean conditions), carried 36 - 60 guns of 12-24 pound caliber and were weaker armored - only 12 pound cannonballs. Armament was pound per ton. The displacement was 750 -1100 tons. In the 18th century, Türkiye began to lag significantly behind in terms of technology. Turkish battleships of the 18th century resembled European ones of the 17th century.

During the 18th century, the growth in the size of battleships continued unabated. By the end of this century, battleships had reached a displacement of 5,000 tons (the limit for wooden ships), armor had been strengthened to an incredible degree - even 96-pound bombs did not harm them enough - and 12-pound half-guns were no longer used on them. Only 24 lbs for the upper deck, 48 lbs for the middle two and 96 lbs for the lower deck. The number of guns reached 130. There were, however, smaller battleships with 60-80 guns, with a displacement of about 2000 tons. They were often limited to the 48-pound caliber, and were protected from it.

The number of battleships has also increased incredibly. England, France, Russia, Turkey, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Spain and Portugal had linear fleets. By the middle of the 18th century, England seized almost undivided dominance at sea. By the end of the century, it had almost a hundred battleships (including those that were not in active use). France scored 60-70, but they were weaker than the English. Russia under Peter churned out 60 battleships, but they were made in a hurry, somehow, carelessly. In a rich way, only the preparation of wood - so that it would turn into armor - should have taken 30 years (in fact, Russian ships later were built not from bog oak, but from larch, it was heavy, relatively soft, but did not rot and lasted 10 times longer than oak). But their sheer number forced Sweden (and all of Europe) to recognize the Baltic Sea as Russian internal. By the end of the century, the size of the Russian battle fleet even decreased, but the ships were brought up to European standards. Holland, Sweden, Denmark and Portugal each had 10-20 ships, Spain - 30, Turkey - also about that, but these were not ships of the European level.

Even then, the property of battleships was evident that they were created most of all for numbers - to be there, and not for war. It was expensive to build and maintain them, and even more so to staff them with a crew, all kinds of supplies and send them on campaigns. This is where they saved money - they didn’t send it. So even England used only a small part of its battlefleet at a time. Equipping 20-30 battleships for a voyage was also a task on a national scale for England. Russia kept only a few battleships in combat readiness. Most battleships spent their entire lives in port with only a minimal crew on board (capable of moving the ship to another port if urgently needed) and unloaded guns.

The ship next in rank to the battleship was a frigate, designed to capture water space. With the accompanying destruction of everything (except for battleships) that existed in this space. Formally, the frigate was an auxiliary ship for the battle fleet, but given that the latter was used extremely sluggishly, frigates turned out to be the most popular of the ships of that period. Frigates, like cruisers later, could be divided into light and heavy, although such a gradation was not formally carried out. A heavy frigate appeared in the 17th century; it was a ship with 32-40 guns, including falconets, and displacing 600-900 tons of water. The guns were 12-24 pounds, with a predominance of the latter. The armor could withstand 12-pound cannonballs, the armament was 1.2-1.5 tons per pound, and the speed was greater than that of a battleship. The displacement of the latest modifications of the 18th century reached 1,500 tons, there were up to 60 guns, but usually there were no 48-pounders.

Light frigates were already common in the 16th century, and in the 17th they made up the vast majority of all warships. Their production required wood of significantly lower quality than for the construction of heavy frigates. Larch and oak were considered strategic resources, and pine trees suitable for making masts in Europe and the European part of Russia were counted and registered. Light frigates did not carry armor, in the sense that their hulls could withstand wave impacts and mechanical loads, but did not pretend to be more, the thickness of the plating was 5-7 centimeters. The number of guns did not exceed 30, and only on the largest frigates of this class there were 4 24-pounders on the lower deck - they did not even occupy the entire floor. The displacement was 350-500 tons.

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, light frigates were simply the cheapest warships, ships that could be made in a whole bunch and quickly. Including by re-equipping merchant ships. By the middle of the 18th century, similar ships began to be specially produced, but with an emphasis on maximum speed - corvettes. There were even fewer guns on the corvettes, from 10 to 20 (on 10-gun ships there were actually 12-14 guns, but those that looked at the bow and stern were classified as falconets). The displacement was 250-450 tons.

The number of frigates in the 18th century was significant. England had little more of them than ships of the line, but it still amounted to a lot. Countries with small battle fleets had several times more frigates than battleships. The exception was Russia; it had one frigate for every three battleships. The fact was that the frigate was intended to capture space, and with it (space) in the Black and Baltic Seas it was a little tight. At the very bottom of the hierarchy were sloops - ships intended for patrol service, reconnaissance, anti-piracy, and so on. That is, not for fighting other warships. The smallest of them were ordinary schooners weighing 50-100 tons with several guns less than 12 pounds in caliber. The largest had up to 20 12-pounder guns and a displacement of up to 350-400 tons. There could be any number of sloops and other auxiliary ships. For example, Holland in the mid-16th century had 6,000 merchant ships, most of which were armed.

By installing additional guns, 300-400 of them could be converted into light frigates. The rest are in sloops. Another question is that the merchant ship brought profit to the Dutch treasury, and the frigate or sloop consumed this profit. England at that time had 600 merchant ships. How many people could there be on these ships? A - in different ways. In principle, a sailing ship could have one crew member for every ton of displacement. But this worsened living conditions and reduced autonomy. On the other hand, the larger the crew, the more combat-ready the ship was. In principle, 20 people could control the sails of a large frigate. But only in good weather. They could do the same thing in a storm, while simultaneously working on the pumps and battening down the port covers knocked out by the waves, for a short time. Most likely, their strength would have run out earlier than the wind. To conduct a battle on a 40-gun ship, a minimum of 80 people were required - 70 loaded the guns on one side, and another 10 ran around the deck and directed. But if the ship performs such a complex maneuver as a turn, all the gunners will have to rush from the lower decks to the masts - when turning, the ship will certainly have to tack against the wind for some time, but for this, all straight sails will need to be tightly reefed, and then, naturally, open them again. If the gunners have to either climb the masts or run into the hold for cannonballs, they won’t shoot much.

Typically, sailing ships intended for long passages or long cruising had one person on board for 4 tons. This was enough to control the ship and for combat. If the ship was used for landing operations or boarding, the crew size could reach one person per ton. How did they fight? If two approximately equal ships under the flags of warring powers met at sea, then both of them began to maneuver in order to take a more advantageous position from the wind. One tried to get behind the other - this way it was possible to take away the wind from the enemy at the most interesting moment. Considering that the guns were aimed by the hull, and the maneuverability of the ship was proportional to its speed, no one wanted to move against the wind at the time of the collision. On the other hand, if there was too much wind in the sails, it was possible to rush forward and let the enemy into the rear. All these dances were original in the sense that it was practically possible to maneuver only by direction.

Of course, the whole story did not fit into the framework of LiveJournal, so read the continuation on InfoGlaz -

Just because of this museum you can go to Stockholm for the weekend! It took me a long time to write this post, if you are too lazy to read, check out the photos)
Prologue
On August 10, 1628, a large warship sailed from Stockholm harbor. Big, probably an understatement, for the Swedes it was huge. Rarely have they built ships of this scale. The weather was clear, the wind was weak but gusty. There were about 150 crew members on board, as well as their families - women and children (a magnificent celebration was planned on the occasion of the first voyage, so the crew members were allowed to take their family members and relatives with them). This was the newly built Vasa, named after the ruling dynasty. As part of the ceremony, a salute was fired from cannons located in openings on both sides of the ship. There were no signs of trouble; the ship was moving towards the entrance to the harbor. A gust of wind hit, the ship tilted a little but stood firm. The second gust of wind was stronger and threw the ship on its side, and water poured through the open holes for the guns. From that moment on, collapse became inevitable. Perhaps panic began on the ship; not everyone managed to get to the upper deck and jump into the water. But still, most of the team made it. The ship lasted only six minutes on its side. Vasa became the grave of at least 30 people, and fell asleep for 333 years, just like in a fairy tale. Below the cut you will find photographs and a story about the fate of the ship.


02. Take a closer look at him.

03. Vasa was built in Stockholm by order of Gustav Adolf II, King of Sweden, under the direction of the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hibertson. A total of 400 people worked on the construction. Its construction took about two years. The ship had three masts, could carry ten sails, its dimensions were 52 meters from the top of the mast to the keel and 69 meters from bow to stern; weight was 1200 tons. By the time construction was completed, it was one of the largest ships in the world.

04. Of course, they are not allowed on the ship; the museum has locations that show what it’s like inside.

05. What went wrong? In the 17th century there were no computers, there were only size tables. But a ship of this level cannot be built “approximately”. High side, short keel, 64 guns on the sides in two tiers, Gustav Adolf II wanted to have more guns on the ship than were usually installed. The ship was built with a high superstructure, with two additional decks for guns. This is what let him down, the center of gravity was too high. The bottom of the ship was filled with large stones, which served as ballast for stability on the water. But "Vasa" was too heavy at the top. As always, little things came up, they put in less ballast (120 tons is not enough) than needed, because they were afraid that the speed would be low, and for some reason a smaller copy was not built either. The comments suggest that there was nowhere else to put more ballast.

06. Vasa was to become one of the leading ships of the Swedish Navy. As I said, he had 64 guns, most of them 24 pounders (they fired cannonballs weighing 24 pounds or over 11 kg). There is a version that they made it for the war with Russia. But at that time the Swedes had more problems with Poland. By the way, they managed to get the guns almost immediately; they were very valuable. England bought the right to raise it. If the guide didn’t lie, these guns were later bought by Poland for the war with Sweden).

07. Why aren’t other ships raised after 300 years? And there is simply nothing left of them. The secret is that the shipworm, Teredo navalis, which devours wooden debris in salt water, is not very common in the slightly salty waters of the Baltic, but in other seas it is quite capable of devouring the hull of an active ship in a short time. Plus, the local water itself is a good preservative; its temperature and salinity are optimal for sailboats.

08. The nose did not enter the lens completely.

09. The lion holds the crown in his paws.

10. There is a copy nearby, you can take a closer look.

11. All faces are different.

12. Look closely at the stern. Initially it was colored and gilded.

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16. He was like that, I don’t like him like that. But in the 17th century there were clearly different views on shipbuilding.

17.

18. The life of sailors is cut short, they don’t have their own cabins, everything is done on deck.

19. As for raising the ship, not everything was simple here either. The ship was found by Anders Franzen, an independent researcher, who had been interested in ship wrecks since childhood. And of course he knew everything about the crash. For several years, a search was carried out with the help of a lot and a cat. "I mostly picked up rusty iron stoves, ladies' bicycles, Christmas trees and dead cats." But in 1956 it took the bait. And Anders Franzen did everything to raise the ship. And he convinced the bureaucrats that he was right, and organized a campaign “Save the Vasa” and from the port dumps he collected and repaired a bunch of various diving equipment that were considered unusable. Money began to flow in and things started to improve, it took two years to build the tunnels under the ship. Tunnels in the literal sense washed under the ship, a dangerous and courageous job. The tunnels were very narrow and the divers had to squeeze through them without getting entangled. And of course, a ship weighing a thousand tons hanging above them did not give courage, Nobody knew whether the Vasa would survive. Nobody else in this the world has not yet raised ships that sank so long ago! But the Vasa survived, did not crumble when sharpened, when divers - mostly amateur archaeologists - entangled its hull with ropes and attached it to hooks lowered into the water from cranes and pontoons - miracle, scientific miracle.

20. For another two years it hung in this state while divers prepared it for lifting, plugging thousands of holes formed by rusty metal bolts. and on April 24, 1961, everything worked out. In that blackened ghost that was brought to the surface, no one would have recognized the same “Vasa”. Years of work lay ahead. Initially, the ship was doused with jets of water, and at this time experts developed a proper conservation method. The chosen preservative material was polyethylene glycol, a water-soluble, viscous substance that slowly penetrates the wood, replacing water. Spraying of polyethylene glycol continued for 17 years.

21. 14,000 lost wooden objects were brought to the surface, including 700 sculptures. Their conservation was carried out on an individual basis; they then took their original places on the ship. The problem was similar to a jigsaw puzzle.

22. Blade handle.

23.

24. The inhabitants of the ship. The bones were found mixed up, without modern technologies nothing would have worked.

25.

26. The museum staff went further than just showing skeletons to visitors. By using " spectral analysis"They restored some people's faces.

27. They look very close to life.

28. Frightening look.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33. That’s probably all I wanted to tell you. By the way, the ship is 98% original!

34. Thank you for your attention.

Barque- (gol. bark), a sea sailing transport vessel (3-5 masts) with straight sails on all masts, except for the mizzen mast, which carries oblique sails. Initially, the barque was a small merchant ship intended for coastal navigation. But then the size of this type gradually increased. The barges were mass-produced until the 1930s. XX century, their displacement reached 10 thousand tons. The two largest modern sailing ships “Kruzenshtern” and “Sedov” are 5-masted barques.

Barge- (Italian, Spanish barca, French barquc), originally it was a sailing rowing undecked fishing vessel, sometimes a coasting vessel, which first appeared in Italy in the 7th century. Subsequently, the barge turned into a light, high-speed vessel, common in Western Europe in the late Middle Ages, built like a galley. Even later, the oars disappeared on the barges and they became completely sailing ships, with two masts that carried the foresail, fore-topsail (foremast) and the mainsail, topsail (mainmast). Interesting feature was that the mizzen was mounted directly on the mainmast. The barges were primarily coastal merchant ships.

Warship- (English warship - warship). Judging by the image and characteristics in the game, this is the same frigate. In general, warships from the middle of the 16th century were ships of medium and large displacement, built specifically for military purposes.

Galleon- (Spanish galeon), sailing warship of the 16th - 17th centuries. It had an average length of about 40 m, a width of 10-14 m, a transom shape, vertical sides, 3-4 masts. Straight sails were installed on the foremast and mainmast, slanting sails on the mizzen mast, and a blind on the bowsprit. The high aft superstructure had up to 7 decks where living quarters were located. Artillery. the armament consisted of 50-80 cannons, usually located on 2 decks. Galleons had low seaworthiness due to high sides and bulky superstructures.

Caravel- (Italian: caravella), a seagoing single-deck sailing ship with high sides and superstructures at the bow and stern. Distributed in the XIII - XVII centuries. in Mediterranean countries. Caravels went down in history as the first ships to cross the Atlantic, sail around the Cape of Good Hope and on which the New World was discovered. Characteristic features of caravels are high sides, deep sheer decks in the middle part of the ship and mixed sailing equipment. The ship had 3-4 masts, which either all carried oblique sails or had straight sails on the foremast and main mast. The lateen sails on the slanting yards of the main and mizzen masts allowed the ships to sail steeply to the wind.

Karakka- (French caraque), a large sailing ship, common in the XIII - XVI centuries. and used for military and commercial purposes. It had a length of up to 36m. and width 9.4m. and up to 4 decks. Developed superstructures at the bow and stern, and 3-5 masts. The sides were rounded and slightly bent inward; such sides made boarding difficult. In addition, boarding nets were used on the ships, which prevented enemy soldiers from getting onto the ship. The foremasts and mainmasts carried straight rigs (mainsail and foremast), while mizzen masts carried oblique rigs. Topsails were often additionally installed on the foremast and mainmast. Artillery. the armament consisted of 30-40 guns. By the first half of the 15th century. Over time, the karakka became the largest, most advanced and armed vessel.

Corvette- (French corvette), high-speed sailing warship of the 18th - 19th centuries. The ship had the same sailing rig as the frigate, with the only exception: a jib and a boom jib were immediately added to the blind. Intended for reconnaissance, patrol and messenger services. Artillery armament of up to 40 guns located on one deck.

Battleship - in the sailing fleet of the 17th - 19th centuries. the largest warship, had 3 masts with full sails. It had strong artillery armament from 60 to 130 guns. Depending on the number of guns, ships were divided into ranks: 60-80 guns - third rank, 80-90 guns - second rank, 100 and above - first rank. These were huge, heavy, poorly maneuverable ships with great firepower.

Pinasse- (French pinasse, English pinnace), a small sailing vessel of the flute type, but differing from it in less concave frames and a flat stern. The forward part of the ship ended in an almost rectangular transverse bulkhead extending vertically from the deck to the forecastle. This form of the front part of the ship existed until the beginning of the 18th century. The pinasse was up to 44 m long, had three masts and a powerful bowsprit. Straight sails were raised on the main and foremasts, a mizzen and a cruisel above it on the mizzen mast, and a blind and a bomb blind on the bowsprit. The displacement of pinnaces is 150 - 800 tons. They were intended mainly for trading purposes. distributed in Northern countries. Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries. It had a flat stern, 2-3 masts, and served mainly for trading purposes.

Pink- (gol. pink), fishing and trading vessel of the 16th - 18th centuries. In the North Sea it had 2, and in the Mediterranean 3 masts with oblique sails (sprint sails) and a narrow stern. It had on board up to 20 small-caliber guns. As a pirate ship it was used mainly in the North Sea.

Flutes- (Gol. fluit), sea sailing transport ship of the Netherlands of the 16th - 18th centuries. It had cambered sides above the waterline, which were tucked inward at the top, a rounded stern with a superstructure, and a shallow draft. The deck was sheer and rather narrow, which was explained by the fact that the width of the deck was a decisive factor in determining the amount of duty by the Sound Customs. The foremast and mainmast had straight sails (foresail, mainsail and topsail), and the mizzenmast had a mizzen and topsail. A blind, sometimes a bomb blind, was placed on the bowsprit. By the 18th century topsails appeared above the topsails, and a cruisel appeared above the topsails. The first flute was built in 1595 in Hoorn, the shipbuilding center of Holland. The length of these ships was 4 - 6 or more times greater than their width, which allowed them to sail quite steeply to the wind. Topmasts, invented in 1570, were first introduced into the spar. The height of the masts now exceeded the length of the ship, and the yards, on the contrary, began to be shortened. This is how small, narrow and easy-to-maintain sails arose, which made it possible to reduce the overall number of the upper crew. On the mizzen mast, a straight cruising sail was raised above the usual oblique sail. For the first time, a steering wheel appeared on flutes, which made it easier to shift the rudder. The flutes of the early 17th century had a length of about 40 m, a width of about 6.5 m, a draft of 3 - 3.5 m, a carrying capacity of 350 - 400 tons. For self-defense, 10 - 20 guns were installed on them. The crew consisted of 60 - 65 people. These ships were distinguished by good seaworthiness, high speed and large capacity and were therefore used mainly as military transport ships. During the 16th-18th centuries, flutes occupied a dominant position among merchant ships on all seas.

Frigate- (gol. fregat), three-masted sailing ship of the 18th - 20th centuries. with full ship sailing equipment. Initially, there was a blind on the bowsprit, later a jib and a boom jib were added, and even later the blind was removed and a midship jib was installed instead. The frigate's crew consisted of 250 - 300 people. A multi-purpose ship, it was used to escort trade caravans or individual ships, intercept enemy merchant ships, long-range reconnaissance and cruising service. Artillery armament of frigates up to 62 guns located on 2 decks. Frigates differed from sailing battleships in their smaller size and artillery. weapons. Sometimes frigates were included in the battle line and were called line frigates.

Sloop- (Vol. sloep), there were several types of ships. Sailing 3 mast warship of the 17th - 19th centuries. with direct sail rig. In size it occupied an intermediate position between a corvette and a brig. Intended for reconnaissance, patrol and messenger services. There were also single-masted sloops. Used for trade and fishing. Common in Europe and America in the 18th - 20th centuries. The sailing rig consists of a gaff or Bermuda mainsail, a gaff topsail and a jib. Sometimes they were additionally equipped with another jib and jib.

Shnyava- (Gol. snauw), a small sailing merchant or military ship, common in the 17th - 18th centuries. Shnyavs had 2 masts with straight sails and a bowsprit. The main feature of the shnyava was the shnyav or trysail mast. It was a thin mast, standing on the deck in a wooden block just behind the mainmast. Its top was secured with an iron yoke or a transverse wooden beam on (or under) the rear side of the main top. Shnyavs who were on military service, usually called corvettes or sloops of war. Often they did not carry a lashing mast, and in its place a cable was laid from the back side of the top of the mainmast, which was lashed on the deadeyes on the deck. The mizzen was attached to this forestay, and the gaff was too heavy to lift. The length of the shnyava was 20 - 30 m, width 5 - 7.5 m, displacement about 150 tons, crew up to 80 people. Military Shnyavis were armed with 12 - 18 small-caliber cannons and were used for reconnaissance and messenger service.

Schooner- (English schooner), a sailing ship with slanting sails. They first appeared in North America in the 18th century. and initially had 2-3 masts with only slanting sails (gaff schooners). They had such advantages as a large carrying capacity, the ability to sail very steeply into the wind, had a smaller crew on board than ships with direct sails required, and therefore became widespread in a wide variety of modifications. Schooners were not used as military sailing ships, but they were popular among pirates.

04/29/2015 23 331 0 Jadaha

Science and technology

It is believed that battleships as a class of warships appeared only in the 17th century, when new tactics of naval battles were formed.

The squadrons lined up against each other and began an artillery duel, the ending of which determined the outcome of the battle.

However, if by linear we mean large combat ships with powerful weapons, then the history of such ships goes back thousands of years.

In ancient times, the combat power of a ship depended on the number of warriors and oarsmen, as well as the throwing weapons that were placed on it. The name of the ships was determined by the number of rows of oars. The oars, in turn, could be designed for 1-3 people. The rowers were placed in several floors, one above the other or in a checkerboard pattern.

The most common type of large ships were quinqueremes (penteras) with five rows of oars. However, in 256 BC. e. in the battle with the Carthaginians at Ecnomus, the Roman squadron included two hexers (with six rows of oars). The Romans still felt insecure at sea and instead of traditional rams they started a boarding battle, installing so-called “crows” on the decks - devices that, having fallen on an enemy ship, tightly bound it with the attacking ship.

According to modern experts, the largest ship could have been a septireme (seven rows of oars) about 90 meters long. A ship of greater length would simply break in the waves. However, ancient sources contain references to octers, eners and decimrems (eight, nine and ten rows of oars, respectively). Most likely, these ships were too wide, and therefore slow-moving, and were used to defend their own harbors, as well as when capturing enemy coastal fortresses as mobile platforms for siege towers and heavy throwing devices.

Length - 45 meters

Width - 6 meters

Engines - sail, oars

Crew - about 250 people

Weapon - boarding raven

It is widely believed that ships protected by armor appeared in the second half of the 19th century. In fact, their birthplace was medieval Korea...

We are talking about kobukson, or “turtle ships,” believed to have been created by the famous Korean naval commander Yi Sunsin (1545-1598).

The first mention of these ships dates back to 1423, but the opportunity to test them in action appeared only in 1592, when the 130,000th Japanese army tried to conquer the Land of Morning Freshness.

Having lost a significant part of the fleet due to a surprise attack, the Koreans, having four times less forces, began to attack enemy ships. The battleships of the samurai fleet - sekibune - had a crew of no more than 200 people and a displacement of 150 tons. They found themselves defenseless in front of kobuksons twice as large in size and tightly protected by armor, since it was impossible to board such “turtles.” Korean crews sat in chest-like casemates made of wood and iron and methodically shot the enemy with cannons.

The kobuksons were propelled by 18-20 single-seater oars and even with a tailwind they could hardly reach a speed of more than 7 kilometers per hour. But their firepower turned out to be crushing, and their invulnerability drove the samurai to hysterics. It was these “turtles” that brought victory to the Koreans, and Lee Sunsin became a national hero.

Length - 30-36 meters

Width - 9-12 meters

Engines - sail, oars

Crew - 130 people

Number of guns - 24-40

The rulers of the Venetian Republic were perhaps the first to understand that dominance over sea communications allows them to control world trade, and with such a trump card in their hands, even a tiny state can become a strong European power.

The basis of the sea power of the Republic of St. Mark was the galleys. Ships of this type could move with both sails and oars, but were longer than their ancient Greek and Phoenician predecessors, which made it possible to increase their crews to one and a half hundred sailors, capable of acting both as oarsmen and as marines.

The depth of the galley's hold was no more than 3 meters, but this was enough to load the necessary supplies and even small quantities intended for the sale of goods.

The main element of the vessel were curved frames, which determined the shape and influenced the speed of the galley. First, a frame was assembled from them, and then sheathed with boards.

This technology was revolutionary for its time, allowing the construction of a long and narrow, but at the same time rigid structure that did not bend under the influence of waves.

The Venetian shipyards were a state-owned enterprise, surrounded by a 10-meter wall. More than 3,000 professional craftsmen, called arsenolotti, worked on them.

Unauthorized entry into the territory of the enterprise was punishable by imprisonment, which was supposed to ensure maximum secrecy.

Length - 40 meters

Width - 5 meters

Engine - sail, oars

Speed ​​- b knots

Load capacity - 140 tons

Crew - 150 rowers

The largest sailing ship of the line of the 18th century, unofficially nicknamed El Ponderoso ("Heavyweight").

It was launched in Havana in 1769. It had three decks. The hull of the ship, up to 60 centimeters thick, was made of Cuban red wood, the mast and yards were made of Mexican pine.

In 1779, Spain and France declared war on England. The Santisima Trinidad set out for the English Channel, but enemy ships simply did not engage with it and escaped, taking advantage of their speed advantage. In 1795, the Heavyweight was converted into the world's first four-deck ship.

On April 14, 1797, at the Battle of Cape San Vincent, British ships under the command of Nelson cut the bow of the column led by the Santisima Trinidad and opened artillery fire from a convenient position, which decided the outcome of the battle. The winners captured four ships, but the pride of the Spanish fleet managed to avoid capture.

The British flagship Victoria, which Nelson was on, attacked the Santisima Trinidad along with seven other British ships, each with at least 72 guns.

Length - 63 meters

Displacement - 1900 tons

Engines - sail

Crew - 1200 people

Number of guns - 144

The most powerful sailing battleship of the Russian fleet was launched in 1841 at the Nikolaev shipyard.

It was built on the initiative of the commander of the Black Sea squadron, Mikhail Lazarev, taking into account the latest developments British shipbuilders. Thanks to careful wood processing and work in the boathouses, the vessel's service life exceeded the standard eight years. The interior decoration was luxurious, so that some officers compared it with the decoration of imperial yachts. In 1849 and 1852, two more similar ships left the stocks - "Paris" and " Grand Duke Konstantin", but with simpler interior decoration.

The first commander of the ship was the future vice-admiral Vladimir Kornilov (1806-1854), who died during the defense of Sevastopol.

In 1853, the “Twelve Apostles” transported almost 1.5 thousand infantrymen to the Caucasus to participate in battles against the Turks. However, when the British and French came out against Russia, it became obvious that the time of sailing ships was a thing of the past.

A hospital was set up on the Twelve Apostles, and the guns removed from it were used to strengthen the coastal defense.

On the night of February 13-14, 1855, the ship was scuttled to strengthen the underwater barriers at the entrance to the bay, washed out by the current. When work began on clearing the fairway after the war, it was not possible to raise the Twelve Apostles and the ship was blown up.

Length - 64.4 meters

Width - 12.1 meters

Speed ​​- up to 12 knots (22 km/h)

Engines - sail

Crew - 1200 people

Number of guns - 130

The first full-fledged battleship Russian fleet, built on Galerny Island in St. Petersburg according to the design of Rear Admiral Andrei Popov (1821-1898), originally bore the name “Cruiser” and was intended specifically for cruising operations. However, after it was renamed “Peter the Great” in 1872 and launched, the concept changed. The conversation began to be about a linear type vessel.

It was not possible to finish the machine part; in 1881, “Peter the Great” was transferred to Glasgow, where specialists from the Randolph and Elder company began its reconstruction. As a result, the ship began to be considered a leader among ships of its class, although it never had the opportunity to show off its power in real combat.

By the beginning of the 20th century, shipbuilding had gone far ahead, and the latest modernization could no longer save the matter. In 1903, the Peter the Great was converted into a training ship, and since 1917 it has been used as a floating base for submarines.

In February and April 1918, this veteran took part in two difficult ice crossings: first from Revel to Helsingfors, and then from Helsingfors to Kronstadt, avoiding capture by the Germans or White Finns.

In May 1921, the ex-battleship was disarmed and reorganized into a mine block (floating base) of the Kronstadt military port. Peter the Great was removed from the list of the fleet only in 1959.

Length - 103.5 meters

Width - 19.2 meters

Speed ​​- 14.36 knots

Power - 8296 l. With.

Crew - 440 people

Armament - four 305 mm and six 87 mm cannons

The proper name of this ship became a household name for a whole generation of warships, which differed from the usual battleships in greater armor protection and the power of their guns - it was on them that the “all-big-gun” principle (“only big guns”) was implemented.

The initiative to create it belonged to the First Lord of the British Admiralty, John Fisher (1841 -1920). Launched on February 10, 1906, the ship was built in four months, using almost all shipbuilding enterprises in the kingdom. The power of his fire salvo was equal to the power of a salvo of an entire squadron of battleships from the recently ended Russo-Japanese War. However, it cost twice as much.

Thus, the great powers entered the next round of the naval arms race.

By the beginning of the First World War, the Dreadnought itself was already considered somewhat obsolete, and it was replaced by the so-called “super-dreadnoughts”.

This ship won its only victory on March 18, 1915, by sinking the German submarine U-29, commanded by the famous German submariner Lieutenant Commander Otto Weddingen, with a ramming attack.

In 1919, the Dreadnought was transferred to reserve, in 1921 it was sold for scrap, and in 1923 it was dismantled for metal.

Length - 160.74 meters

Width - 25.01 meters

Speed ​​- 21.6 knots

Power - 23,000 l. With. (estimated) - 26350 (at full speed)

Crew - 692 people (1905), 810 people (1916)

Armament - ten 305 mm, twenty-seven 76 mm anti-mine guns

The largest (along with Tirpitz) German battleship and the third largest representative of this class of warships in the world (after battleships of the Yamato and Iowa type).

Launched in Hamburg on Valentine's Day - February 14, 1939 - in the presence of Prince Bismarck's granddaughter Dorothea von Löwenfeld.

On May 18, 1941, the battleship, together with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen, left Gotenhafen (modern Gdynia) with the goal of disrupting British sea communications.

On the morning of May 24, after an eight-minute artillery duel, Bismarck sent the British battlecruiser Hood to the bottom. On the battleship, one of the generators failed and two fuel tanks were punctured.

The British staged a real raid on the Bismarck. The decisive hit (which led to the loss of control of the ship) was achieved by one of the fifteen torpedo bombers that rose from the aircraft carrier Ark Royal.

The Bismarck went to the bottom on May 27, confirming with its death that battleships must now give way to aircraft carriers. His younger brother "Tirpitz" was sunk on November 12, 1944 Norwegian fjords as a result of a series of British air raids.

Length - 251 meters

Width - 36 meters

Height - 15 meters (from keel to upper deck)

Until the end of the 14th century, kogi and other ships had the same weapons as ancient ships, but even after the spread firearms their weapons continued to be traditional.

IN « ImposicioOfficialGazariae" 1441 stipulates that a ship or cog with a cargo of 20,000 cantaro (an old measure of weight that ranged from fifty to eighty kilograms, i.e. we are talking about a cargo of approximately 1,500 tons) must have on board eight bombards with two hundred "stones" (round stone balls) and three barrels of gunpowder, but it is added that on board there should be twenty-two cuirasses, twenty-two steel breastplates, six battle axes for cutting rigging and spars, three grapnels with chains, wide-headed nails , vats of lime and liquid soap, lances and arrows.

The ship's arsenal, naturally, included ordinary edged weapons. It should be explained that the nails scattered on the deck, together with the spilled liquid soap, made it impossible to move on the deck; lime was used to blind the enemy and cause him to suffocate; and the fact that cuirasses and pikes were required on board indicates that the outcome of a naval battle was usually decided in hand-to-hand combat. As a curiosity, one can cite a book written in 1439 by a French admiral named Jean de Bayle and entitled « Iuvincelintroductionauxarmes", in which Greek fire, “dolphins” and even divers, specially trained and trained to destroy the bottoms of enemy ships, are included in the ship’s weapons.

In galleons of the 16th century. the entire arsenal consisted almost exclusively of firearms. A declaration issued in 1584 by the French king Henry III, regulating how ships of certain sizes (meaning merchant ships, not military ships) should be armed, established that ships with a crew of forty-five people were required to have two cardinal guns, four long-range culverins, twelve "support" cannons and twelve flamethrowers, but still prescribed twenty-four pikes and two sickles for cutting rigging, as well as twelve crossbows.

In describing rowing ships, we mentioned that galleys had all their artillery at the bow, while galleasses (large three-masted war galleys) had cannon at the stern, plus several large-caliber muskets and arquebuses on both sides of the quarterdeck, mounted on oak rowlocks. In contrast, on carracks, galleons and more advanced ships, the main artillery was placed along the sides, and only a few guns could fire forward and backward. This order was determined

design features: galleys and galleasses did not have a deck on which artillery could be installed, while sailing ships had one, two and three decks, which were part of the structure of the ship and therefore capable of supporting the weight of a large number of large-caliber guns. It should be emphasized that for reasons of stability and to avoid compromising the strength of the ship's hull, the most powerful, heaviest guns were placed on the lower deck and, accordingly, lighter ones - on the upper decks. The guns on the main deck, forecastle and poop could fire through holes in the bulwarks and fencing. These openings did not need to be closed while the ship was moving. However, the cannons on the lower decks had to fire through the ports (holes in the very sides of the ship). When the ship was on the march, these ports were to be closed if possible for safety. They were rectangular in shape, almost square, and appeared on carracks around 1450. They are said to have been invented by a French carpenter named Deschardeux in 1410, and in France they were called « sabords"(“gun ports”). The installation of arquebuses and other small firearms on the bulwarks of galleasses was already practiced, but since the design features of the gunwale (a wooden beam running on top of the bulwark, or boulevard, or along the boat side, where oarlocks are attached to it) could hardly provide a sufficiently strong and reliable support, it was impossible to load it with a weapon heavier than a man could hold with the help of iron brackets on which the muzzle could be supported.

Light guns mounted on the bows of galleys, such as falconets and culverins, had wooden barrels and carriages without rollers, and in order to load them, the gunner needed to have access to them from the front, from the muzzle. In contrast, the guns on carracks and galleons, as well as on warships and frigates, were mounted on wheeled carriages. Reloading the guns involved rolling them back and returning to their original place at the side, so they had to be rolled back and forth using hoists attached to the deck and sides.

Guns were improved over time, and from objects artistic skill- which they also were, - decorated with elaborate relief ornaments, turned into simple bronze and steel pipes. Stone cores were replaced with cast iron ones. Iron cannonballs could be fired from guns linked by a chain in pairs to cause greater damage to the enemy, breaking spars, or hot (so-called “firebrands”) to cause a fire on board. Even to end of the 19th century centuries, when the age of steam began, ship cannons continued to fire round cannonballs, did not have a screw thread inside the barrel and were loaded from the muzzle. The only notable progress was the introduction of "carronades" - guns that, instead of wheeled carriages, were mounted on stationary ones, and instead of aiming at the target using wooden wedges driven between the barrel and the carriage, they had a vertical screw lifting mechanism located between the breech of the gun and the carriage. The name of the gun comes from the town of Carron near Falkirk (Firth of Forth) in Scotland, where guns of this type were first cast in 1774.

One of the special types of weapons introduced in the 16th century was the fire-ship. Actually, it was not a weapon as such, but simply a small ship (or large boat), loaded with flammable materials, which was launched with the wind towards enemy ships With the purpose of setting them on fire and disabling them.