EntrancePhenomena of semantic development of foreign words. Mastering foreign words in Russian
ASL KNOWLEDGE AND LITERARY STUDIES
ON THE QUESTION OF SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT OF BORROWINGS
I.V. Nikiforova_
The path that a foreign word takes, from its penetration into the language to its complete mastery, can vary in duration and in how easily this entry occurs, how predisposed society is to accepting a foreign word into its language system, how much it needs it depending on the relevance of the concept it denotes. “Foreign language words denoting communicatively important concepts fall into the zone of social attention: during certain periods - usually quite short - their frequency in speech becomes unusually high, they easily form derivatives, and most importantly - they become the object of conscious use and related puns, structural rework, etc.; (1). An example of rapid assimilation as a consequence of the communicative importance of the concept is the assimilation of the word default, introduced in August 1998 to denote a crisis.
Borrowings, entering the Russian language system, are subject to
patterns of development of the Russian literary language, undergoing assimilation of the graphic and sound structure, orthographic, morphological, word-formation, semantic, where the pragmatic aspect is highlighted. All types of assimilation have their own characteristics and patterns, although they are essentially different aspects of the same phenomenon - the adaptation of English borrowings into the system of the Russian literary language. By studying them, we trace the evolution of development
the evolution of the development of Anglicism in the new linguistic environment.
The acquisition of semantic independence by borrowing also implies a process that takes place in several stages:
A. Mastering the lexical-semantic plan of the word. Basically, words mastered in lexical-semantic terms are previously borrowed Anglicisms, which over time adapted to the Russian language system and became semantically autonomous. This group can also include some new Anglicisms, which, due to the rapidly changing situation (linguistic, political, economic), also received lexical and semantic development. Wed. from previously borrowed Anglicisms such as blockade, boycott, leader, rally. Among the new ones are voucher, dealer, clearings, etc.
B. Complete semantic independence of Anglicism and the formation of a lexical-semantic microsystem of a given word (phraseology, figurative usage, etc.). This stage is connected with the previous one and is its result. It is when Anglicism becomes semantically independent, autonomous, that one of the signs of this independence is the possibility of figurative uses of Anglicism such as rating of mistrust, dangerous sponsor, political clip, political picnic, etc.
B. The emergence of new meanings on Russian soil. Another sign
Lexico-semantic independence is the emergence of new meanings of Anglicism on Russian soil. This occurs as a result of interaction with elements of the borrowing language, which leads to differentiation of meanings. Thus, the Anglicism “camping; in the source language it means “to camp or live somewhere temporarily without any amenities;. Meanwhile, when this same Anglicism became commonly used on Russian soil and went beyond the boundaries of its etymon, it acquired a new meaning - “a specially equipped summer camp for auto tourists;
Thus, the evolution of a borrowed word has a complex path in the receptor language. It must be emphasized that all the stages considered are parts of a single, dynamic process, and, as in any process, the boundaries of the stages of evolution can be blurred.
Researchers note that borrowings at the initial stages of penetration are still closely related to their prototypes in the source language, which can affect the instability of the phonetic, graphic and grammatical design of the lexeme, the semantic attachment of the word to “alien; reality.
In the first period, a weakening of the influence of the source language on the external, formal aspects of assimilation is often noted. The form of the word stabilizes, approaching the forms of the receptor language. V.M. Aristova argues that “it is during this period (she calls it the period of introduction) that the influence of the recipient language on borrowing is most powerful. This phenomenon can be explained by the expansion of the scope of use of the word in relation to Russian reality. In this case, the word sometimes receives a different interpretation of an explanatory (dictionaries) or contextual (use in speech) nature (2).
It is obvious that words such as “welfare”, “developer”, “publications”, “publicity”, “primaries” etc. are at the implementation stage and in many ways
retain their foreign appearance. Their further fate difficult to predict, since there is no linguistic necessity for their use, although it serves certain stylistic purposes. Apparently, the internal laws of the development of the Russian language will ultimately determine their further functioning. It is also necessary to take into account this most important factor, as the acceptance or rejection of foreign words by a Russian linguistic personality.
An important role in the development of the semantics of a borrowed word during the period of introduction is played by persons who speak the source language, contributing to their speech activity this process.
Let us also consider semantic processes, which, in our opinion, are among the active ones in the circle of borrowed vocabulary.
Semantic transformations of Anglicisms in connection with the phenomena of poly- and mono-semy of words. Part of the vocabulary that is monosemic in the native language is included in the Russian language with a single meaning. That is, an English word denoting one concept in the source language retains monosemy even during Russification. Basically, this is terminological vocabulary of a highly specialized nature such as IQ, blender, modem. There are also Anglicisms that partially retain their polysemy in the receptor language system. This is mainly the case among old English loanwords such as outsider, business, discount
Metaphorical transfer. Being one of the universal semantic processes of language, metaphorical transfer has features of manifestation in different languages and its study can go in two directions: identifying the specific, national in comparison with one or more languages and identifying common features inherent in several languages. The associative feature associated with this object must be common to native speakers, otherwise
In this case, the created metaphor will remain blurred, diffuse and incomprehensible to the addressee. Thus, the metaphor may remain unclear if the direct meaning of the term offshore “created or registered in the territory of another state and enjoying tax benefits” is unknown; “The untouchable caste” means for the All-Russian State Television and Radio Company, first of all, the forgiveness of a colossal debt. VGTRK was declared a kind of offshore zone in which preferential rules of the game apply (“OG” dated December 6, 1998). It was the probability of semantic diffuseness that forced the author to indicate the feature on the basis of which the metaphor “in which preferential rules of the game operate” is built. In the absence of such an explanation, the metaphor remains obscured: The conclusion is that offshore companies are located directly in Moscow, St. Petersburg and others major cities. The population does not trust banks and keeps funds, figuratively speaking, in their home offshores (“OG” dated October 15, 1998). Words that are at the initial stages of lexical-semantic assimilation, which have not yet been fully mastered by the Russian language, but which make it possible to highlight a “specific attribute” in them (3), are subject to metaphorization.
Political discourse is characterized by occasional and usual metaphors, based on analogies with sports, medicine, theater, military affairs, and any other conceptual spheres: gallop, knockout, knockout, pressure, on the verge of a foul, marathon, favorite, outsider, agony, resuscitate, resuscitator etc. These are the spheres that “supply” not only terminology with clear associative features, but also entire situations that are transferred from one sphere to another. In this case, the metaphor is consistently deployed within a sentence, part of a text or a whole text: There is no state. There is a huge flying saucer... on which the president, the Duma, the government and other foreigners fly
planetary people. And those who believe in them are ufologists..("OG" dated 10/15/98).
Characteristic feature is the ease of forming metaphorical derivatives: Journalists were accused of “social killers”, and the Prosecutor General’s Office of “complete impotence” (“MK” dated 10.25.97).
The appearance of figurative meanings in words belonging to the category of exoticisms is not associated with their de-exoticization. This depends on the presence of semantic components in the meaning of the word or associative features on the basis of which the metaphorical meaning is created. The word striptease was borrowed in the 60s. as exoticism: “a variety show (in capitalist countries), the participants (usually women) gradually undress” (SNA 95). In the 70s the word acquires a figurative meaning: “discovery of one’s usually unsightly essence, frank self-exposure (gaz.-publ.) (SNS 95). A stable combination of emotional striptease emerges. When a figurative meaning appears in the word exoticism, in many cases the new meaning becomes no less, and often more common, than the direct meaning used to describe realities unusual for society. Currently, the word has actively begun to be used in a figurative meaning, especially in political discourse: But the striptease was performed by the Russian woman herself political system(“MK” dated 04/22/99). Candidates for leading government positions are being exposed, we had fun with this “striptease” (“AiF” No. 42, 97). Note that the word zMr-Eease does not have such a figurative meaning.
Metonymic transfer. Metonymization, which is a transfer by contiguity, is a universal semantic process that actively occurs in the modern Russian language. New meanings based on metonymic transfer can also arise in the donor language and be borrowed by the receptor language through tracing, that is, their own metonymic meanings and tracing are delimited.
The meanings that arise as a result of metonymic transfer can be occasional or customary. Occasional meaning is “an abbreviation of the semantic chain of names; (4). For example: shuttle rags (“OG” dated 10/22/98), “humanitarian; boots (“OG” dated 10/22/98), “corruption” arrests (“OG” dated 11/5/98), “ecological” money (“OG” dated 04/22/99).
In the Russian language, when using such abbreviations, vagueness and ambiguity of nominations are not excluded. This depends on the semantic mastery of direct borrowing or tracing paper involved in the formation of such a construction. For example: the “green” stocking will remain the main way of saving (“Ogonyok” 02.96). In this case, a necessary condition for correct semantization is the recipient’s knowledge of the meaning of the tracing paper “green” - “dollars”. Such constructions, apparently, cannot be considered as new in the field of syntax, but one can only talk about expanding their spheres of use.
Among the traced stable names, we can cite as an example the following: white collars - about people of hired labor engaged in mental work (5) blue collars - about people of hired labor engaged in physical work (NSZ 70) - white collar, blue collar.
Expanding the semantic range of Anglicism. This occurs due to the determinologization and reterminologization of Anglicisms in the Russian language. In connection with the development of science and technology, the increase in the level of education and culture, English borrowed terms are involved in the commonly used lexical fund and become the property of a wide circle of the population. The impact of the language system may be a modification of the meaning of a word, which consists in expanding its denotative area. The main condition for such an expansion is to reduce the number of features or semantic components.
tov meanings. Elimination of individual features allows one to correlate a given word with a large number of denotations. This decrease in the descriptiveness of the meaning of the word is reflected in the reduction in the dictionary definition of the word.
Determinologization of Anglicisms is a productive way to enrich the vocabulary of the Russian language. This process can be represented as follows: a highly specialized term ^ a special term ^ varieties of a term ^ a term with a generalized meaning (generalization of meaning) ^ a commonly used word.
Let's consider this process using the example of borrowing a verdict (English verdict from the Latin vere dictum - what is said correctly): “a decision, mainly of jurors in a bourgeois court on the question of the guilt of the defendant; (6). BTS 98 (7) notes only the special meaning of the word. BAS -2 (8) highlights the extended value as a hue: decomposed. An opinion, a judgment, a conclusion about something. Further, this expanded meaning is highlighted as a separate one and noted as relatively new: “a decision on any issue; opinion about something; The meaning of the word expanded from special to general, and at the same time, two signs were eliminated - the limitation of the circle of agents of action (not only jurors) and the limitation of the sign (not only on the issue of guilt) disappeared.
There are a sufficient number of Anglicisms-terms that become popular due to their regular use in a certain terminological field, for example. summit, briefing.
Narrowing the semantic range of Anglicism. One or more meanings of a borrowed word may be lost, as in the word lobby 1. A system of offices and agencies, monopolies under the US legislative bodies, organizing pressure on legislators and officials in favor of one or another decision. 2. Collective Agents of these offices and agencies (9). In another dictionary we find
Bulletin of Stavropol State University
dim: lobby - a group of representatives of economically powerful structures (10). This meaning (“system of offices and agencies;), which disappeared from the word in the recipient language, was not noted and is not noted in English word lobby, in the semantic structure of which three meanings are fixed. The Russian language borrowed the latter, semantically derivative: (Amer.) group of persons “processing; members of Congress in favor of this or that bill (11). This model is not very regular in the Russian and English languages, so in many cases there is a discrepancy in correlative meanings.
The process of semantic contagion. The process lies in the fact that at a certain stage the syntagmatic connections of a word, which are determined by the meaning of the word itself, begin to influence the formation of its meaning. The contextual meanings realized in them become the meaning of the word, and it enters into subsequent syntagmatic connections in a new, contextually acquired meaning. Moreover, the very regularity of certain phrases is determined by extra-linguistic factors. This process can act as an independent process or as an additional one to the processes of metaphorization, semantic differentiation, metonymization, etc. This process occurs in different languages, and in some cases a word is borrowed in the meaning that arose in the donor language precisely as a result of this process.
Thus, the word summit was borrowed by the Russian language in a meaning that appeared in the semantic structure of the English word summit precisely as a result of the action of this semantic process. Initially, the following meanings were noted in the structure of the English word: 1. Top; 2. Limit, top; 3. watered higher spheres (Muller 71). The word summit, used as part of the phrases summit meeting, summit conference (meeting at top level, summit conference), received new knowledge
meaning inherent in the meaning of these phrases and in this meaning was borrowed different languages: summit meeting, negotiations of heads of state; summit (12). The adjective virtual in combination with the words temperature, particle, transition, movement, state is used in quantum physics and goes back to the Latin virtualis - “possible”. In this meaning, the word was recorded already at the beginning of the century, when it was used in combination with the words length, speed. In the 80s In our century, there was a secondary borrowing of the word as part of the traced term virtual reality (virtual reality). In both English and Russian, the meaning “imaginary, imaginary, created using computer graphics”, characteristic of the entire stable combination, has also come to the word virtual. It is possible to determine whether the development of a new meaning in the Russian language was independent or was due to the action of semantic induction. The word in this meaning receives almost unlimited compatibility: virtual space, virtual games, virtual sex, etc. Actualization of the seme “imaginary, imaginary; led to the emergence of a qualitative meaning for this adjective in the Russian language: “fictitious, not really existing, not operating;. The recording of a large number of verbal uses of the adjective in this meaning gives grounds to speak specifically about the formation of a new meaning: “virtual 500 days of Yavlinsky; (“John; dated 2.12.98”).
It should be noted that the process described above is successfully carried out only if the phrase, which is a tracing paper, is sufficiently mastered. When “premature; transferring the meaning inherent in a phrase to a word-component of a given combination, the act of communication is disrupted. Thus, tracing-exoticism happy hours (English happy hours) denotes a phenomenon that is just beginning to enter our reality. "In Western Europe
The happy hours system is quite widely practiced throughout the world. European tourists took it to the resorts of hot countries where they vacation. Its meaning is that at certain hours (happy hours for drinkers - hence the name), say, from 7 to 9 pm, they announce a discount on alcohol” (“In” dated 05.21.97). But when the compatibility of the word happy is expanded in the meaning inherent in the entire phrase, communication is disrupted. Thus, the meaning of the phrase happy menu when translated into English in the English-language Russian newspaper Moscow Times (happy menu - MT dated December 25, 1997) turns out to be semantically obscured for English-speaking referents and is not associated with the semantic component “discount” present in the English-language combination happy hours.
The widespread use of anglicism contributes to the de-exoticization of lexical units. If an Anglicism becomes commonly used, it receives the status of a borrowed word in our terminology. This criterion is more typical for new Anglicisms, which become commonly used precisely due to their widespread use: pager, roaming, rating, bodybuilding. The alienness of exoticisms to our everyday life is due to socio-political conditions, different systems and mentality. With the change in the socio-political and economic situation, the preconditions were created for the penetration of previously alien realities into our lives, which is what happened in the last decades of the 20th century. A number of words of foreign origin began to be used to describe the realities of our lives. Accordingly, a large corpus of words moved from the category of exoticism to the category of ordinary borrowings. This was accompanied by the final mastery of such words and a change in their connotation. At the same time, these words moved from the periphery to the center, the frequency of their use increased, and dictionary marks like “in bourgeois countries”, “in the USA”, etc. were removed. This explains the re-
the acceptance of such words as non-borrowings not only by ordinary native speakers, but also by linguists. In “Stylistics of the Russian language; I.B. Golub are cited as new borrowings of the words consensus, press release, rating, etc. But a significant part of the active
political and economic vocabulary, the de-exoticization of which determined its final development, was recorded earlier in reference dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words. The following exoticisms are noted in the NHS 70, many of which at this time began their entry into the new language system: publicity, show, bestseller, lobby, lobbyist, happening, impeachment, press release, management, know-how, rating list, petrodollars , consensus, stagflation, etc.
Wide word-formation activity, often leading to the formation of new lexemes. Almost all previously borrowed Anglicisms have passed this stage and many new ones are quickly passing through: sponsor - sponsorship - sponsorship - sponsor.
Based on the consideration of the semantic adaptation of borrowed words, we believe that the assimilation of foreign words is a process of their gradual adaptation to all the features of the Russian language system, which can be more or less lengthy, more or less complete. This may depend both on the external conditions (scope of use, frequency) of use of the word, and on how “foreign” it is; are the main parameters of the word: its phonetic, morphological and semantic features. Since we considered only semantic adaptation, it seems important to us to emphasize that it is of an individual and conventional nature at the initial stages, while at subsequent stages there is an activation of only some of the borrowed lexemes with exactly the meanings with which they were used in speech (written or oral) recipient.
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LITERATURE
1. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in modern Russian. - M, 1968. - From 1154. Aristova V.M. English-Russian language contacts and borrowings (XVI-XX centuries). -Kaliningrad, 1979. - P. 41.
3. Arutyunova N.D. Language and the human world. -M.: Languages of Russian Culture, 1998. -S. 40.
4. Gak V.G. Language transformations. - M: Languages of Russian Culture, 1998. -P 509.
5 NSZ 70 - New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book on press and literature materials of the 70s. / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokina. -M, 1971.
6 SIS 55-Dictionary of Foreign Words / Ed. I. V Lekhina and prof. F.N. Petrova. -M, 1955.
7 BTS - Large explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - St. Petersburg: Norint, 1998.
8 Dictionary of modern Russian literary language: 2nd edition in 20 volumes. -TT. 1-SNS 95 - Dictionary of new words in the Russian language. 50-80 / Ed. N.Z Kotelova - St. Petersburg, 1995.
10. OS 97 - Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. SI. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova. -M, 1997.
11. Muller 71 - English-Russian dictionary/ Ed V.K. Muller. -M, 1971.
12. IS - 97 - Foreign words and expressions / Comp. N.G. Komlev. - M: Sovremennik, 1997.
Nikiforova Irina Vladimirovna, full-time graduate student of the Department of Language Theory. The area of research is modern borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language in the field of media - cultural and sociolinguistic aspects.
Semantic acquisition is the process by which a foreign word enters the system of concepts of the borrowing language.
The overwhelming majority of borrowings used in our speech are semantically mastered. These words are basically the names of those realities and concepts that have entered the lives of Russian people over many years, in the process of contacts with other peoples. This is a designation for household items: sconce, buffet, wardrobe, sofa, carpet, dressing table etc.; names of dishes and drinks: entrecote, vermicelli, goulash, cocoa, pasta, stew, lemon juice etc.; names of types of clothing: trousers, blouse, blouson, jeans, tuxedo etc.; political terms: democracy, dictatorship, pluralism, populism etc.; Economics terms: share, dividend, loan etc.; titles related to science and art: axiom, hypothesis, theory, vaudeville, drama, comedy, stage; names of sports: basketball, volleyball, hockey, tennis, football; names of modes of transport: bus, metro, taxi, trolleybus etc. At the same time, we can note such cases of semantic development when a borrowed word, denoting a phenomenon that existed before in our system of concepts, introduces additional semantic nuances into the meaning of the corresponding Russian word. So, the Latin word opus(“work, work”) in Russian began to be used to name a separate musical work, designated by a serial number in a number of other works of a given composer. Borrowed from English comfort(“convenience”) began to mean the totality of everyday amenities, the convenience and comfort of a home, public institutions, etc.
Along with semantically mastered words, in our speech there are many such foreign words that denote concepts that are unusual in Russian reality. In the famous story by I.A. Bunin’s “Mr. from San Francisco” we read: “The route chosen by the gentleman from San Francisco was extensive. In December and January, he hoped to enjoy the sun of Southern Italy, ancient monuments, tarantella, serenades of wandering singers..."; "The cabman, a stout* man with red eyes, in an old jacket with short sleeves and knocked-down shoes, was hungover - he played dice all night trattorias, - and kept whipping his strong horse, dressed in Sicilian style..." The highlighted words denote realities that reflect the national characteristics of Italian life. Tarantella – the name of an Italian folk dance performed at a fast pace, accompanied by guitar playing, tambourine strokes, castanets, and sometimes singing; trattoria – a small restaurant, a tavern, where the menu certainly includes the Italians’ favorite spaghetti with tomato sauce and dry red wine.
* Kvoly – frail.
Tarantella, trattoria – These are exoticisms, i.e. words denoting objects, phenomena, unusual for Russian life. Exoticisms do not have synonyms in the Russian language, since they reflect what is specific in the life of another people. Therefore, they can only be translated into Russian descriptively.
Exotic vocabulary reflects the most diverse aspects of the life of a particular country: its everyday life(in the names of dwellings, types of clothing, foods, drinks): bungalow, hut, tent;anorak, bubu, geta, kimono, burqa, sari, sombrero;couscous, lobio, mate, spaghetti;culture(in the names of dances, musical instruments, specific literary genres, etc.): krakowiak, polonaise, rumba, samba, tarantella;kantele, samisen, trembita;dzekku(one of the types of Chinese poetry is quatrains), tank(unrhymed five-line in Japanese poetry), haiku(unrhymed tercet); socio-political groups,institutions,estates,positions etc.: lobby, mujahideen, Knesset, ninjas, samurai etc. Many exoticisms reflect the realities associated with the religion of a particular people, with their beliefs: guru, Quaker, priest, priest, mullah, muezzin, prelate, rabbi, church, mosque, minaret etc. Exoticisms also include names of phenomena that reflect the characteristics of geography and climate: mistral, prairie, simoom, sirocco etc.
The listed thematic groups of exoticisms (and these, of course, are not all groups) are mainly names of specific concepts. But exoticisms can also denote abstract concepts that exist in the minds of a nation as an obligatory element of its culture and are perceived by other people as specific. Such is, for example, exoticism hara-kiri, denoting suicide by cutting open the abdomen. But this is not an ordinary suicide, but one that was accepted among the Japanese samurai and was committed by sentence or voluntarily if the honor of the samurai was affected. Japanese bushido(“the way of the warrior”) is the name of the code of conduct of the Japanese samurai, which presupposes loyalty to the overlord, recognition of military affairs as the only occupation worthy of a samurai.
And here is how one of the specific abstract Japanese concepts is explained kokoro in G. Grigorieva’s book “Born by the Beauty of Japan”: “ Kokoro – the most important concept of the Japanese mentality. It is difficult to find an analogue in our language. Kawabata, speaking about how the spirit of Western and Japanese cultures differs, saw the difference in “our kokoro". Kokoro – the feeling mind and the thinking sense. It is through kokoro the process of intuitive cognition takes place: think with the heart, feel with the mind... In the explanatory Japanese dictionary Kojien kokoro – knowledge, feeling and will together, a sign of the spirituality of things"*.
* Grigorieva G. Born of the beauty of Japan. M., 1993. S. 39 – 40.
Despite the fact that exoticisms denote words that are not included in the Russian system of concepts, some of them are reflected in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and in dictionaries of foreign words. These are the exoticisms that occur quite regularly both in original Russian and translated literature; These include most of the exotic words above. But the meaning of such exoticisms as bushido, sabi, can only be found in special dictionaries and commentaries*.
* See, for example, in the book: Akutagawa Ryunosuke. Words of a Pygmy: Stories. Memories. Essay. Letters. – Comments. M., 1992. S. 544 – 592.
The process of semantic acquisition can also occur gradually. The words that most quickly enter the system of concepts of the Russian language are those that name specific objects that came to us from other countries, especially household items. Let us remember the humorous comment that accompanies A.S. Pushkin’s description of Onegin’s outfit: “I could describe his outfit in front of the learned world, Of course, it would be bold, Describe my own business: But trousers, tailcoat, vest. All these words are not in Russian, But I see, I apologize to you, That my poor syllable could have been much less colorful with foreign words..." Pushkin, who had a brilliant sense of language, defends the right to use those borrowed words before his supposed opponents , which, although recently, have already entered the Russian lexicon as the only possible names for realities that appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century*.
* The novelty of these words for the Russian language is confirmed by dictionary data. Word trousers first recorded in 1834, tailcoat – in 1806, vest - in 1803.
The process of mastering abstract concepts takes longer. In the same "Eugene Onegin" we find French word comme il faut and English vulgar, transmitted using Latin script: commeilfaut, vulgar. Talking about Onegin’s meeting with Tatyana at a St. Petersburg ball, Pushkin describes his heroine this way: “She was leisurely, not cold, not talkative, Without a gaze, insolent for everyone, Without pretensions to success, Without these little antics. Without imitative undertakings... Everything was quiet, it was just in her, She seemed like the right shot Du comme il faut...(Shishkov, I’m sorry, I don’t know how to translate).” And a little lower: “No one could call her beautiful; but from head to toe No one could find in her That which is called autocratic fashion in the high London circle vulgar.(I can’t... I love this word very much, But I can’t translate it; It’s still new with us, And it’s unlikely to be honored. It would fit in an epigram...)." Both foreign words are aesthetic and ethical assessments borrowed by the Russian aristocracy from European countries in the first quarter of the nineteenth century ( comme il faut – something that corresponds to the norms and rules of decency; vulgar – vulgar, trivial, simple, rude, bad taste). And Tatyana’s characterization, preceding the use of the word commeilfaut and representing its almost encyclopedic interpretation, and the ironic comments with which Pushkin supplements words new to the Russian reader, allow us to assume with a reasonable degree of probability that in the first third of the 19th century both words were only part of the system of Russian concepts and had not yet fully gone through the process of semantic development*.
* This is confirmed by data from explanatory dictionaries of the 19th century, in which the word comme il faut was first recorded only in 1864, and the word vulgar – in 1837.
In our time, there is also a process of rapid development of words that most recently were exoticisms. Socio-political, socio-economic transformations in our lives have led to the semantic development of words such as businessman, broker, voucher, vice, marketing, management, mayor, city hall, rating, sponsor, supermarket and many others*.
* Some of these words have been used in Russian before, but as a means of diversifying speech.
Along with exoticisms, barbarisms are often found in our speech. Barbarisms are foreign words denoting realities, phenomena that exist in our lives and are included in the system of concepts of the Russian language. Unlike exoticisms, barbarisms can be translated into Russian using one word without any loss of meaning: good boy(English) orevoir(French), ciao(igal.) – goodbye!; sorry(French), sorry(English) - sorry, I beg your pardon; quantum tantum(lat.) – insofar as; et cetera(lat.) - and so on; cito(lat.) – urgently; ego(lat.) – I; nihil(lat.) – nothing, etc.
Barbarisms can be displayed in writing both using Russian letters and while preserving the graphics of the source language (see the examples above), and are sometimes found in double writing: de facto(Lat. “actually, in reality”) – de facto;de jure(lat. “legally, by right”) – de jure; everything will be o"key - o"key(the latter version conveys the graphic appearance of one of the columns of the Moskovsky Komsomolets newspaper).
Barbarisms are not recorded in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. An exception is the Dictionary by D.M. Ushakov, at the end of the 4th volume of which there is an appendix “Foreign words and expressions”, which includes foreign words found in Russian texts in non-Russian spelling. Dictionaries of foreign words usually end with the same application. In addition, there are specialized reference books that contain barbarisms used (or used) in Russian literature. The most famous is the two-volume dictionary by A.M. Babkina, V.V. Shendetsova*.
* Babkin A.M., Shendetsov V.V. Dictionary of foreign language expressions and words. T. 1, 2. 2nd ed. M.; L. 1981 - 1987.
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Both modifiable and immutable adjectives can be used in speech (and subsequently become established in the language) as a noun. So, for example, the frequent nouns mobile (about the phone), video, audio, art, real, price at the turn of the century go back to the adjectives (mobile, video, audio, art, real, price). A modified foreign language adjective is substantivized in the traditional way: the paradigm of endings is shortened, the categorical meaning changes, the syntactic functions are expanded, and a gender is assigned. An unchangeable adjective, as opposed to a changeable one, receives a system of endings if it ends with a consonant (price), or remains an indeclinable word if it ends with a vowel (video).
The functioning of borrowed analyte-adjectives in Russian speech, the emergence of new lexical units on their basis (for example: vip-adj. ‘an employee intended for especially important and rich people’ [AL] > vip noun > vipovsky) creates conditions for the formation parallel notations one and the same reality, for example: virtual press - virtual press, demo version - demo version, etc.
In the section " Verbs» the grammatical adaptation of foreign language verbs is considered. Modern borrowings that replenish the class of verbs are few. See: invest, mix, scan, shunt (according to TSIS23, NSIS). From computer jargon, the verbs upgrade ‘to update (the contents of the computer)’ (< англ. to upgrade), юзать ‘использовать’ (< англ. to use), кликать ‘нажимать клавишу «мыши»’ (< англ. to click).
It should be noted that the substandard has far surpassed literary language by the number of borrowed verbs. This is due to the fact that jargon “willingly” accepts verbs that name actions for which the literary language already has lexical units. Such jargons as lukat 'to look' (from English to look), sikak 'to speak' (from English to speak), ask 'to ask' (from English to ask), etc., constitute a large part of youth jargon. group equivalent foreign language vocabulary. This is not at all characteristic of a literary language, in which the borrowed verb, even if there is a synonym in the recipient language, differs from it in semantic and/or stylistic shades; cf., for example: audition (special) and listen, highlight and color, etc.24
Borrowed verbs are quickly included not only in form formation, but also in word formation, becoming the productive basis for nouns (see scanning, shunting, investing, etc.). Thus, foreign language verbs organically merge into the system of the Russian language, “dissolving” in the environment of verbs with a foreign language base, a significant part of which is produced on Russian soil from borrowed nouns (sponsor, produce, PR, bankrupt, etc.).
In the section " Adverbs» the design of foreign language adverbs in the literary language and substandard is considered and cases of the use of neologisms-adverbs in the role of other parts of speech are noted. In a literary language, the class of adverbs is still rarely replenished with foreign languages (non-stop ‘non-stop’, fifty-fifty ‘equally’). However, attention should be paid to an important functional feature of foreign language adverbs, namely their ability to act as other parts of speech: a noun (musical non-stop), an analytical adjective (music non-stop; fifty-fifty proportion), category of state (cf. , for example, in the dialogue: – Are you sure that he will support us? – I don’t know, fifty-fifty, that is, probably, perhaps). This feature brings adverbs closer to others multifunctional unchangeable words - indeclinable nouns and analytical adjectives, capable of performing the functions of different parts of speech.25
The substandard “more willingly” accepts adverbs. Some adverbs are formalized in jargon “in imitation” of Russian adverbs starting with -o (fayno< fine ‘хорошо, прекрасно’) или -ом (ездитьhichem'hitchhiking'< hitchhike ‘поездка автостопом на попутной машине’ [СЗА; ССМЖ26]; нон-стопом).
It should be especially noted that in the substandard, the part-speech composition of foreign language vocabulary is represented much more widely than in the literary language.27 Etiquette formulas (greetings, farewells, etc.) are actively used: hai, hello; chao, bai, iskuse ‘sorry’, senks ‘thank you’, which have already become international in youth subcultures.
A striking feature of borrowing in jargon is the “transition” of interjections from a foreign language. At the end of the 90s. XX century Among young people, the interjections wow!/wow! have become entrenched in a relatively short period of time (approximately five years).< wow (выражение восхищения, удивления, восторга и т.п.) и ес!/йес! < yes (возглас одобрения, выражение чувства удовлетворения; произносится с характерной англоязычной интонацией). В XXI в. оба междометия, особенно вау, используются не только носителями жаргона – их можно услышать в ситуации непринуждённого общения в речи людей молодого возраста, в том числе детей; их можно услышать и в речи теле- и радиоведущих.28 В той же среде популярны также междометия супер29 «возглас, выражающий высшую оценку» [АЛ] и окей.
The fourth chapter of the dissertation is “ Semantic development of foreign words at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries." A foreign word entering the recipient language represents, like any two-way unit of language, a unity of the plane of expression and the plane of content. In the process of borrowing, both sides are subject to Russification - both the plane of expression (sound, graphic, grammatical appearance of the word) and the plane of content (lexical meaning of the word). The lexical meaning of a newly borrowed word is formed, clarified, and polished as the word is included in syntagmatic and paradigmatic connections with words of the receiving language.
At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. semantic adaptation of foreign language neologisms has its own characteristics, because takes place during a period of linguistic instability, during a period of activation of many language processes. Firstly, the formation lexical semantics new borrowing occurs at an accelerated pace: a foreign language neologism in a relatively short period of time (5-10 years) “strives” to become a full-fledged unit of the lexical system, freeing itself from uncertainty, vagueness, and diffuseness of meaning. Secondly, the semantic changes that a word in a foreign language undergoes at the time of borrowing are largely due to the general processes occurring in Russian vocabulary at the turn of the millennium. Such are, for example, the deideologization of vocabulary (late 20th century); active assimilation of foreign-style lexical means; actualization of words that were previously on the periphery of the language; transformation of semantics and rapid development of polysemy of some words thematic groups; updating word compatibility; the formation of new thematic groups of vocabulary, etc. “Fresh” borrowings are involved in these processes. For example, in modern speech, new foreign words are actively “drawn into” the process of metaphorization, semantic derivation, determinologization, phraseologization, etc. The participation of a new word in the general semantic processes occurring in the Russian vocabulary accelerates its Russification.
Based on these observations, the semantic development of foreign words borrowed at the end of the 20th century beginning of XXI centuries or actualized in a given period, is considered in this chapter in the general context of active processes in the modern Russian language. At the same time, we pay attention to such specific phenomena that characterize the process lexical borrowing– copying/transformation of the lexical meaning of the word-etymon; semantic and/or stylistic “repulsion” of a foreign word from its equivalent, etc.
As already noted, at the turn of the century all language processes proceed at an accelerated rate. At the same time, in the semantic development of foreign language neologisms, several adaptation stages, or stages, can be distinguished. For each of the borrowed words they will be different in terms of time, but the same or similar qualitatively.
The first section of the chapter explores Features of the semantics of foreign words at the initial stage of borrowing.
In the second section - “ Formation of the lexical meaning of a new foreign word» – the next stage of semantic development of a foreign word is explored. Conventionally, it can be called the stage of semantization: the new sound shell is filled with specific, individual meaning and content. This can happen in this way: the unsteady, diffuse meaning of the borrowed word is first subsumed under its most general translation (image - image; boutique - store; presentation - presentation; couturier - fashion designer, etc.), then the meanings and/or style affiliation of the corresponding words are differentiated. As a result, a certain meaning is assigned to a foreign word (for example, couturier ‘fashion designer who has his own business and creates highly artistic clothing collections’ [TSIS]); a word occupies one place or another in the stylistic system of a language (special monitoring). The perception of words by speakers of different social and age groups is leveled out. This manifests itself in the fact that the word goes beyond written speech and begins to be used in colloquial speech.
An important role in the formation of the lexical meaning of a new foreign language word is played by the method of semantic borrowing: copying the meaning of the etymon word (cf. English monitor and Russian monitor ‘a device for displaying text and graphic information based on the use of a cathode ray tube or liquid crystals’ [NARS31; AL]) or transformation meanings (cf. English smile ‘smile’ and Russian emoticon ‘a set of symbols used to convey various emotions in the process of Internet communication’).
The condition for copying the meaning is the coincidence of the part-speak of the “prototype” and the borrowed word. If the “prototype” is a phrase of the source language or an abbreviation, then, as a rule, the meaning of a foreign word copies the “sum” of meanings, consisting of the meanings of the words included in the phrase, see: haute couture and French. haute couture ‘high fashion’; love story and english love story ‘love story’; hi-tech< Hi-Tech ‘high technology’, etc. If, during borrowing, the morphological affiliation of the word changes (Russian noun extreme and English adj. extreme) or a substantivalization of the sentence of the source language occurs, transformation of the lexical meaning of the word-etymon becomes mandatory.
However, even if the part of speech of the etymon word and the borrowed word of the recipient language coincide, a transformation of the lexical meaning can occur. It can manifest itself in the form of the following processes: narrowing the lexical meaning of the etymonic word (cf. Russian killer ‘hired killer’ and English killer ‘killer’, etc.); expansion of the lexical meaning of the word-etymon (nickname ‘nickname, pseudonym’ and English nickname ‘Internet user nickname’); the appearance of a positive evaluation (“improvement”32 of the lexical meaning of the etymonic word), see: boutique ‘fashion store’ from the French. boutique ‘shop, shop’ [TSIS], tuning ‘finishing internal or external automotive equipment to the “luxury” level’ [NSIS] from English. tuning ‘engine adjustment’ [NARS] – or, on the contrary, negative (“deterioration”), see: black PR, etc.
Particular attention is paid to the layer of foreign language vocabulary that enters the literary language indirectly, through a substandard (so-called internal borrowings), see: single, pro, label, DJ, etc. The semantic “processing” of such units differs from the semantic adaptation of direct external borrowings: “ former jargons undergo stylistic neutralization; They are characterized by expansion of lexical meaning, etc.
The third section of the chapter is devoted to further development of the semantics of foreign words. We attribute this process to the last stage of semantic acquisition. At this stage, the word is involved in the process of semantic derivation, as a result of which its semantic structure is replenished with a new meaning (or meanings), the scope of use of the word and its compatibility are expanded. Some, usually the most common, foreign language neologisms develop secondary meanings both in books and in colloquial speech (sponsor “about any person who provides material assistance to someone”, zombie “a weak-willed apathetic person”, kamikaze “suicide bomber”, etc. ). A number of foreign words become high-frequency precisely in a new meaning (PR ‘forming an opinion about someone, something’, outsider ‘loser’, etc.). The polysemy of new foreign languages is reflected in other parts of the language system. So, if a foreign language word has a new lexical-semantic variant (LSV), then the word formed on the basis of a foreign language also adds a new meaning to its semantic structure (cf. zombie translation and zombify the population; zombified electorate). A foreign word in a new meaning can form a new synonymous pair (translated rating - popularity, fame) or be included in another synonymous series (cf. virtual - possible, potential; virtual - network, electronic; virtual - unreal, imaginary, fictitious); it can also become a component of a phraseological combination (take a time out, hit of the season, virtual reality). The polysemy of a foreign word is often reflected in its grammatical behavior. Different LSVs of the same word may relate differently to the grammatical category of number (jeans - jeans ‘custom-made topics in the media’), to the category of animateness/inanimateness (model, pilot); may belong to different grammatical categories (glamor as an abstract noun and glamor as a collective noun - see: All the capital's glamor has gathered).
Thus, in the process of semantic acquisition of foreign language vocabulary, many units of language, as well as its basic mechanisms, are directly involved; its resources have been updated. In some adaptation processes, such as, for example, metaphorization, phraseological derivation (based on a new foreign word), the “generative” models available in the language are in demand. For example, the model of metaphorical transfer “art genre event”, implemented in such stable usages as comedy (about a funny incident), farce (Not a meeting, but some kind of farce!), drama (family), etc., gave rise to a number of new metaphors based on foreign words, see: (political) thriller, (political) show, (political) action, talk show (about a government meeting), blockbuster (about NATO actions), remake (political strategy), etc.
These are the general features of the main stages of semantic acquisition of foreign words. It should be noted that the features of word adaptation both at the initial stage and at subsequent stages depend on what type of foreign language vocabulary it belongs to. When borrowing words that do not have equivalents on Russian soil, the lexical meaning of the etymon word is predominantly copied (badge, floppy disk, pager, file, provider; see also exoticisms: intifada, green card); when borrowing equivalent lexemes - transformation of the word-etymon (killer, boutique, racketeer, electorate, etc.). The equivalent word is attached to already existing synonymous pairs or series (creative, constructive, creative; exceptional, unique, unique, exclusive). The non-equivalent word itself becomes the starting point for a new synonymic series, a new synonymous pair, see: trial– bicycle acrobatics; copywriter– text writer; dance floor– dance floor; marker– text highlighter, etc.
Further development The semantics of words of equivalent vocabulary proceeds in constant interaction with their synonyms. It is in the sphere of equivalent foreign language vocabulary that the effect is noticeable linguistic analogy in the process of its development. Thus, from its equivalent, a foreign language neologism can inherit a model of metaphorical transfer (cf. political label, political label).
The features of semantic adaptation also depend on whether a foreign word comes to Russian soil motivated or unmotivated. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. the number of parallel borrowings has increased - words that came from the same source language with common root: image, imagement, image maker, image making, image transfer; tutor, tutorial, tutoring, etc. Those borrowings that enter the Russian language after the same root words have been mastered in it are perceived by speakers as more or less motivated. The presence of motivation contributes to an adequate understanding of a new word already at the initial stage of its adaptation. Unmotivated foreign words (and such units predominate among borrowings) are mastered without relying on any kinship in the receiving language. Such borrowings, first of all, need to be presented correctly in texts intended for a wide audience.
Words related to such types of borrowings as terminological/non-terminological are also mastered differently. The difference is manifested, for example, in the development of polysemy in words of these types. Words with primary terminological meaning, i.e. borrowed from a foreign language as terms, generate a new LSV in most cases with the help of metaphorical transfer (ecology of language, brand of the year), while common words often develop a new meaning based on a metonymic shift (cf. the words peeling 'skin cleansing' and 'cleansing cream ', piercing 'piercing various parts of the body and strengthening jewelry in the resulting hole' and 'decoration inserted into the piercing site', etc.).
Adaptation of words of foreign language origin is a process that has a complex organization and takes place over time. The problem of word assimilation must be considered diachronically, at a certain time slice. The degree of assimilation of a particular lexical unit can only be discussed in relation to a specific period, since the boundaries of the concepts of “foreign word” and “borrowing” can be blurred. There are several criteria for determining the degree of borrowing of a word: frequency of use of a foreign word in the borrowing language; correlation with grammatical (morphological, first of all) categories of the borrowing language; word-formation activity; phonetic acquisition; transmission of words by graphic means of the borrowing language. The implementation of the full set of characteristics is optional. In our opinion, necessary conditions assimilation of a word is the correlation of the lexeme with a certain denotation and the frequency of use of the lexical unit, i.e. quite active use of it in speech.
Difficulties arise when determining the semantic structure of a particular word in relation to the stage of entry of a lexical unit into the recipient language, because one should take into account the fact that at the initial stage of adaptation it is possible to both identify the meanings of the prototype and borrowing, and differentiate the meanings. The first case is typical for terminological vocabulary, the second - for most words entering a new language environment and adapting to it.
The process of semantic adaptation of a foreign word is associated with the transformation of its semantic structure without changing its form. It is assumed that the lexical meaning of a word from another language is not simply absorbed by the “receiving” language, but there is a so-called “grinding in” of it to the system of the new language at the semantic level. A lightning-fast transfer of the meaning of a word from one language to another is impossible in its pure form, because the borrowing language must be more or less familiar with the concept expressed by the same word. The etymological connection remains in any case. Thus, even the rapid Russification of a word will not make it a full-fledged unit of language, i.e. commonly used, stylistically neutral, established and actively used in various styles.
Of particular interest are the latest borrowings, the process of their activation in the Russian language, as well as changes in the meanings of previously borrowed lexical units at the present stage. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries. foreign language vocabulary (including borrowings as its components) forms one of the main layers of the lexical system of the Russian language. This is due, first of all, to changes in the political life of the country. Words of foreign origin began to dominate in the most various fields: scientific, financial, cultural, everyday, etc. Even colloquial vocabulary is replenished with words of foreign origin.
A comparative analysis of the prototype and the correlative seme allows us to identify certain types of correspondences. According to N.V. Gabdreeva, we can distinguish four main types of correspondence between a foreign language prototype and a correlate in the Russian language: expansion of the semantic volume, reduction of the semantic volume (simplification of the semantic structure, reduction in the number of meanings), stability of the semantic structure and interlingual homonymy.
The modern period of language development is characterized by the process of borrowing lexical units with a subsequent increase in their semantic volume. As a rule, semantic development takes place on Russian soil. The meaning expansion process includes:
a) increase in semantic volume,
b) development of figurative meanings of a previously borrowed word on Russian soil.
Let's look at some examples. The English word cocktail (English, lit. ‘cocktail’), which entered the Russian language in the 20th century, originally meant “alcoholic drink with sugar and spices.” Currently, this word refers to a “chilled mixture of various drinks” (juice-based cocktail, milk cocktail with sugar, fruit cocktail). In this case, we can talk about borrowing with the expansion of the semantic meaning of the word due to the presence of the common seme “mixture of drinks.”
The German word strikebreaker, which entered the Russian language relatively recently (German, lit. ‘strike’ and ‘to break, tear down’), originally (in Ozhegov’s dictionary) had the meaning of “a person who works during a strike, betraying the interests of the strikers.” Later, in Efremova’s dictionary, in addition to the meaning that corresponds to the meaning of the prototype, an additional one is recorded: “one who is hired by the administration to replace the strikers.” Today, modern dictionaries note the additional connotative seme “traitor, traitor to common interests.”
A figurative meaning can appear in a language as a result of an indirect nomination, i.e. such a way of designating objectively existing objects or qualities, which is associated not with the name of their essential characteristics, but with the designation of an object or quality through the secondary characteristics of another, already designated object, reflected in its name. The word “outsider” (English letters ‘outside’ and ‘side’) has come to mean “an enterprise or company that is not part of a monopoly union” and “an athlete who has no chance of success.” Later, Efremova’s dictionary records the following meanings, including figurative ones: 1) a small or medium-sized enterprise in any industry that is not part of a monopoly association of this industry; 2) a team or athlete occupying one of the last places in the competition (in sports); 3) transfer the one who is last is behind in some matter. The use of a word in a figurative meaning implies the presence of implicit connections between the meaning of the original word and the derived lexical meaning. In this case, we can talk about the presence of a common associative seme “loser”, which united the original and derivative meanings of the word.
The process of expanding meaning must be distinguished from homonymy. The word sherbet (var. sherbet) at the very beginning had the meaning of “a drink prepared from the natural juices of berries and fruits.” IN lately it became an incorrect, illiterate trade name for various sweets mixed with nuts and pressed into briquettes. Modern dictionary foreign words (Zenovich) gives the following meanings: 1) an oriental drink made from fruit juice and sugar; 2) sweet food - a thick mass made from fruits, coffee, chocolate and sugar. The reason why the name of the drinks switched to fudges is unclear.
Narrowing the semantic meaning implies specifying the meaning according to the principle of narrowing the semantic volume or reducing the number of meanings of a word. As a rule, a similar phenomenon is observed in words that have one or more meanings in the source language. A narrowing of the semantic scope of a borrowed word can occur both at the time of its entry into the Russian language and during the process of mastering it. Let's consider this process using the example of the English word casting (English, lit. 'casting'). In the source language at the moment it has several meanings: 1) throwing, throwing; 2) shedding horns, changing skin; 3) approximate calculation 4) distribution of roles, selection of actors; 5) casting, casting; 6) warping of wood; 7) rock transport; 8) mounds of earth formed by worms; 9) vomit. Efremova’s modern dictionary gives the following meanings: 1) determining the composition of performers, selecting actors for cinema, television, theater; 2) public viewing of girls (usually during beauty contests), as well as models, mannequins for subsequent demonstration of samples of fashionable clothing. As we can see, the modern lexeme verbalizes only a small part of the originally nominated objects.
The English word hacker (English, lit. ‘to chop, cut through’) in the source language has several meanings: 1) a person who hacks computer programs; 2) a person who washes dishes before eating; 3) one who engages in some activity in an amateurish manner. In the Russian language, as a result of the reduction in the number of meanings, only one remains, related to the field of computer science - “computer hacker, specialist in unauthorized access to computer networks, overcoming computer security systems.”
Recently in Russian it is often used the word fake in the meanings: “fake, fiction” and “the second account registered on the resource, which is an unreliable copy of the account of any user registered on the same resource.” IN English it has more meanings: 1) rope coil; 2) cunning, deception, fraud; 3) fake; forgery, fake; 4) deceiver, swindler, charlatan; 5) feint (sports); 6) improvisation. This neologism in Russian is associated with the Internet and means a fictitious identity when a network user begins to impersonate another person.
The process of reducing the semantic volume may affect words that entered the Russian language quite a long time ago and became commonly used. German word fine (German, lit. ‘punishment’) denoted different types of punishment and had the following meanings: 1) punishment, penalty (including corporal or church punishment, death penalty); 2) fine; 3) retribution, retribution. In modern language, the lexeme is used only in the meaning of “monetary penalty, a measure of material impact on persons guilty of violating certain rules.”
At the present stage of development of the vocabulary of the Russian language, a process of its actualization (resemantization) is observed. It implies that lexical units that have fallen out of use over a certain period of time or have become little used after a certain period increase their functional significance and re-enter the vocabulary of the language. They may retain the same semantic content, or they may have semantic changes.
In the 18th century, the French word canapé was actively used in Russian. One of its original meanings: “a small, one-bite piece of bread with a filling” - was not recorded in dictionaries throughout the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th. Only at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries did this name of the dish begin to appear again in cookbooks and dictionaries.
Many common in the 18th and 19th centuries. lexical units on for a long time disappeared from the active vocabulary, and only a few years ago they returned to the language again along with the revival of realities: parfait (French, cream whipped with sugar with the addition of vanilla), orchad (French, a drink made from almond milk) and others.
Thus, semantic derivation is a complex and interesting process that reveals the changes that occur in the semantic structure of a word. Consideration of lexical units in diachrony allows us to identify certain correspondences between the prototype and correlative borrowing in relation to a certain period of language development.
When borrowing this or that word, the Russian language rarely leaves it in the form in which it existed in the source language. This is due to differences in sound structure, grammar, and semantics between languages. Therefore, when borrowed, words change their appearance, adapt to the laws of the Russian language, and begin to live according to its norms. The adaptation of words (mastery) begins, first of all, with a change in its graphic appearance. Graphic mastery is the transmission of a foreign word in writing using the Russian alphabet, since most Western European languages are based on the Latin alphabet, and the Russian language is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. For example, English meeting – Russian. Rally; German. Grossmeister - grandmaster. Some words and expressions retain their original appearance: tet-a-tet, veni, vidi, vici.
Phonetic acquisition is a change in the sound composition of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic mastery manifests itself regularly and naturally, because The articulatory base of languages is different. Vowels that are alien to the Russian language can be expressed in different ways. For example, English trust – rus. trust, German Hulsa - Russian sleeve. Diphthongs are not typical for the Russian language, so they are also converted: Lat. auqūstus – Russian. August, lat. auditorium – Russian audience. Adapting to the phonetic conditions of the Russian language, foreign words are subject to reduction, deafening at the end and in the middle of the word. When mastered, the accent may also change: lat. kathedra - Russian department, English standard - Russian standard, lat. revisor - auditor.
Morphological development is the adaptation of a word to the grammatical system of the Russian language. When mastered, nouns are subject to the declension system, with the exception of indeclinable nouns. Foreign language inflections, as a rule, are cut off or replaced with Russian ones, or become part of the basis. For example, gradus – degree, metallum – metal. When borrowing, a change in gender is possible, since in other languages the category of gender is not grammatically relevant, but is determined on a semantic basis: all inanimate nouns are classified as neuter. In lat. language noun in -um referred to the neuter gender, and in Russian - to the masculine gender: aquarium, forum, consultation. In Greek noun on -a were neuter, but in Russian they became feminine: theme. axiom, problem. Greek the words aloe, asphalt, analysis were feminine. Changes may also be in number: for example, German. curl, valve, English coconut, cupcake, Greek silo were n. pl. numbers. During mastery, a change in part-speech affiliation is observed. So, for example, major (French), plenum (Latin), piano (French), nocturne (French “night”), candidate (Latin “dressed in white”) were adjectives, credo (Latin “believe” ) – verb, quorum (lat.) – pronoun. Due to the specifics of the Russian verb, as a rule, only the basis and idea of the action is borrowed, and is formalized according to the model of the Russian language: lieben - to love, gehen - to go.
Acquisition is a long process, so some words retain the characteristics of the original language, while creating an accent. In the process of borrowing, changes also occur in the semantics of words. The meaning of words can narrow or expand. In most cases, a word is borrowed in a specific meaning, so its semantics becomes narrower. For example, the French word la poudre had the meaning “dust, powder, gunpowder”, and was borrowed in the meaning of “powder for cosmetic purposes”, lat. globus (“ball”) acquired the meaning “model globe" An example of the expansion of semantics is the words: greenhouse (from the French “greenhouse for growing oranges”), which in Russian has the meaning “any greenhouse”, the word room had in Italian. language meaning “room with a fireplace”, in Russian. – any room in a residential building, holidays in lat. denoted the period from June 22 to August 23, when the Sun was in the constellation Canis, in Russian the word vacation means “a break from classes.” Semantics can change to a greater extent: Greek. diploma literally meant “a sheet folded in half”, in Russian – “document”, Lat entrant – “one who is going to leave”, in Russian – “one who enters”. Thus, when a foreign word enters the Russian language, it must obey its rules and patterns.
6. Tracing is a special type of borrowing
Tracing is called an “ecologically friendly” method of borrowing, since it allows, without destroying the integrity of the perception of the Russian lexical system, to expand its capabilities. Calques (French calgue - “copy, imitation”) are words formed according to the model of a foreign word. Tracing papers are less studied for several reasons:
1) there are comparatively fewer cripples than borrowings;
2) tracing papers are difficult to identify, since the criteria by which a particular word or combination should be recognized as the result of tracing paper are not clear.
There are several types of calques: derivational tracings, semantic tracings and semi-calques.
A derivational tracing paper is created by translating each morpheme of a foreign word: consonance - gr. symphonia; parent language - German. Urspache; peninsula - German Halbinsel, adverb – lat. Adverbum, television – television – semi-copy copy (one of the parts without translation).
Semantic tracing paper is a word with a new figurative meaning that arose under the influence of the semantics of a foreign word: shadow “illegal, not in power” (English) - shadow business, shadow economy; format “character, appearance, form” - English. The meeting was held in an updated format; high “best, elite” (English) – high fashion, high technology, shock “to shock, amaze” (English) – N. Mikhalkov’s new film shocked the jury. Linguists note that the ratio of types of cripples in different periods of language development is not the same. If in the XIX – XX centuries. derivational tracing paper prevailed: superman, cost (German), binder (German), employer, skyscraper (English); semantic tracings are noted - the highlight of the program (under the influence of French), the platform “the set of principles of a political party” - under the influence of German, then in the Russian language of our days semantic tracings predominate, and their main source is the English language.