Creation of Carthage. History of the city-state

Carthage- a Phoenician, or Punic, state with its capital in the city of the same name, which existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia. Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire. According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants were renowned for their business acumen.

Location
Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader maritime trade Mediterranean. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia. The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the shore, which made the city impregnable from the sea. The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four equal residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times.

Story
Carthage was founded by immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a precious stone for a piece of land limited by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of place would be hers. After the deal was concluded, the colonists chose a convenient location for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single bull hide. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. The leader of the Maksitan tribe, Giarb, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Dido, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years. Judging by the objects found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade relations connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt. In the 8th century BC. e. The situation in the Mediterranean has changed greatly. Phenicia was conquered by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive exodus of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able to form colonies itself. The first Carthaginian colony in the western Mediterranean was Ebessus on the Pitius Islands. At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to counter the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panormus, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, a league of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica. The advantageous geographical position allowed Carthage to become largest city Western Mediterranean (population reached 700,000 people), unite around itself the remaining Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.
Carthage before the Punic Wars
In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and entered into an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punes suffered defeats, but Mago I reformed the army, an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. In the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessus was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed. The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade turnover; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. During the Greco-Persian Wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, and together with the Etruscans an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) from the coalition Greek cities-State struggle was suspended for several decades. The main enemy of the Punics was Syracuse, the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punics.
In the 3rd century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations began to deteriorate. This first appeared at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was carried out mainly in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome's fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. The Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. the Romans moved fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. Only in 251 BC. e. In the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a great victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory and there was a lull.
Hamilcar Barca
In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca became the commander-in-chief of Carthage; thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean toward the Punics, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and pay an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years. After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, led by Hanno.
The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to govern effectively led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly vested him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, the army chose his son-in-law Hasdrubal as commander in chief. In 16 years, most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, and in the battles it was created strong army. Overall, Carthage became much stronger than it had been even before the loss of Sicily.
Hannibal Barca
After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander in chief. All his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - Gamil Kara was brought up in the spirit of hatred of Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason for war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum, a Spanish city and an ally of Rome, and the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around the Alps into Italian territory. There he won a number of victories - at Ticinus, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Canna, Hannibal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, which resulted in the transfer of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city, Capua, to the side of Carthage. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him with significant reinforcements, the position of Carthage became very complicated.
Hannibal's campaigns
Rome soon moved the fighting to Africa. Having concluded an alliance with the king of the Numidians, Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punes. Hannibal was called home. In 202 BC. e. In the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Spain and all the islands to Rome, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they had no right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome. After the end of the war, Hanno, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, the heads of the aristocratic parties, who were hostile towards Hannibal, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia, which was an ally of Carthage, in the war.
Fall of Carthage
Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to quickly recover and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade had long been an essential sector of the economy; competition from Carthage hampered its development. His rapid recovery was also a big concern. The Numidian king Massinissa constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; Realizing that Rome always supported the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and resolved in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punes were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately made claims regarding the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded the surrender of all weapons, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that new town was founded far from the sea. Having asked for a month to think it over, the Punes prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, and out of a population of 500,000, 50,000 were captured and became slaves. The literature of Carthage was destroyed, with the exception of a treatise on agriculture written by Mago. A Roman province was created on the territory of Carthage, ruled by a governor from Utica.

The legendary wealth of Carthage
Built on the foundation laid by the Phoenician ancestors, Carthage created its own trading network and developed it to unprecedented proportions. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops. Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. The navigator Gimilkon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And 30 years later, Hanno, who came from an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships with 30,000 men and women. People were dropped off at different parts coast so that they could found new colonies. Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, by all accounts, the richest city ancient world. « At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. thanks to technology, the fleet and trade... the city has moved to the forefront"- says the book "Carthage". The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “ Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian».

Regions and cities
The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians themselves - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the city’s rule. There were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about Carthage's relations with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea. The Carthaginian power was extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was more than 300 km east of Eia. Between it and the Atlantic Ocean the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. Colonies and trading posts were for the most part located approximately one day's sailing distance from each other. Usually they were located on islands near the coast, on capes, at the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country from where it was easy to reach the sea. The power included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought the Sicilian Greeks for centuries; under its rule were Lilybaeum and other heavily fortified ports in western Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island. Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were prohibited from entering the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks gained a foothold on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great successes were achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain.

System of government
Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the continent, it had an advantageous geographical position, which was conducive to trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further to the west.
Compared to many famous cities antiquity, Punic Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city, and intensive construction took place in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC. Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls measuring approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was very strongly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter, called Megara, had many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. Up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time for loading and unloading. Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal. In terms of its government structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings. Ancient authors, who mostly admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates-suffets. Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, owning land was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a completely respectable occupation, and wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect.

Religion of Carthage
The Carthaginians, like other Mediterranean peoples, imagined the universe as divided into three worlds, one above the other. Perhaps this is the same world serpent, which the Ugaritians called Latanu, and the ancient Jews called Leviathan. The earth was thought to lie between two oceans. The sun, rising from the eastern ocean, circled the earth, sank into the western ocean, which was considered the sea of ​​darkness and the abode of the dead. The souls of the dead could get there on ships or on dolphins. The sky was the seat of the Carthaginian gods. Since the Carthaginians were immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, they revered the gods of Canaan, but not all of them. And the Canaanite gods changed their appearance on new soil, absorbing the features of the local gods.

The first place among the Carthaginian deities was occupied by the maiden goddess Tannit, known since the 5th century. BC e. according to the religious formula of the Punic inscriptions as “Tannit before Baal.” In importance, she corresponded to the great goddesses of Ugarit - Asherah, Astarte and Anat, but did not coincide with them in functions and in many ways surpassed them, which can be seen at least from her full name. The symbols of Tannit were a crescent, a dove and a triangle with a crossbar - like a schematic representation of the female body. One of the main gods of the Carthaginians, Baal-Hammon, who found himself in the shadow of Tannit, retained some features of his predecessor Balu: Baal was also the patron of agriculture, the “bread-bearer,” and was depicted with ears of corn in his left hand. Identified with the Greek Kronos, the Etruscan Satre and the Roman Saturn, Baal-Hammon belonged to the older generation of gods; It was to him that numerous human sacrifices were made. An equally revered god in Carthage was Reshef, already known to the Canaanites in the 2nd millennium BC. e., but was not then one of the main gods. The very name Reshef means “flame”, “spark”, and the attribute of the god was a bow, which gave the Greeks reason to identify him with Apollo, although in fact he was most likely the god of thunder and heavenly light, like the Greek Zeus, the Etruscan Tin and the Roman Jupiter . Along with the gods, the Carthaginians revered heroes. There are known altars of the Philen brothers, who became famous for their exploits in the fight against the local population or the Hellenes. Gods and heroes were worshiped as open air, near the altars dedicated to them, and in the temples administered by the priests. The combination of priestly and secular positions was allowed. The priesthood of each temple constituted a college, headed by the chief priest, who belonged to the highest strata of the aristocracy. The bulk of the temple personnel consisted of ordinary priests and priestesses, whose positions were also considered honorary. Among the ministers there were also fortunetellers, musicians, sacred barbers, scribes and slaves who occupied a higher position than private and state slaves. Special meaning The cult placed emphasis on sacrifices, usually accompanied by theatrical performances. Part of the harvest, animals and people were sacrificed. Human sacrifices are known to many ancient religions, but if among the Hellenes, Etruscans, and Romans they were not of a permanent nature, then in Carthage human sacrifices were made annually - not a single major religious holiday was complete without them. The most common were sacrifices of newborn children. The Carthaginians took the highest-ranking citizens as hostages; the Carthaginian gods demanded sacrifices, first of all, of the children of the nobility. And none of the prominent politicians and military leaders was able to protect their child from this fate. Over time, the thirst for blood among the Carthaginian gods increased: children were sacrificed to them more and more often and in more and more new territories that were part of the Carthaginian state.

Trade policy
The Carthaginians were successful in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policy was guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In a treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies. The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. Carthage did not pay due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.

Agriculture
The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. The most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Average quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their passion for wine, and special laws were passed against drunkenness. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided between wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates farming was carried out on scientific basis. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wanting to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Local residents - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers - worked as tenants, or sharecroppers.

Craft
Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the vibrant purple dye commonly known as Tyrian purple, dates back to the later period of Roman rule in North Africa, but may be considered to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Permanent settlements were founded in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction.
Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the craftsmen of Ancient Phenicia who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metal workers were invariably distinguished high level skill. The largest of the handicraft industries was the production of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns filled with products intended for firing were discovered. Each Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found throughout the areas that were part of Carthage's sphere - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain.

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CARTHAGE,ancient city(near modern Tunisia) and the state that existed in the 7th–2nd centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (meaning "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by people from Phoenician Tire (traditional founding date 814 BC, actually founded somewhat later, perhaps c. 750 BC). The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks called it Carchedon.

According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants were renowned for their business acumen. According to the legend of the city's founding, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the hide into narrow strips. That is why the citadel erected at this place was called Birsa (which means “skin”).

Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded somewhat to the north (traditional date - ca. 1100 BC). Probably around the same time, Hadrumet and Leptis, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippo on the north coast and Lyx on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco were founded.

Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete plied the Mediterranean Sea. The political and military failures of these powers starting around 1200 BC. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean Sea and a favorable opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. From 1100 to 800 BC The Phoenicians virtually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored the lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

CITY AND POWER

Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the continent, it had an advantageous geographical position, which was conducive to trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further to the west.

Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city, and intensive construction took place in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC. Based on the scant evidence of ancient authors and their often unclear topographical indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was very strongly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter, called Megara, had many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.

System of government.

In terms of its government structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was Queen Dido, we know almost nothing about royal power here. Ancient authors, who mostly admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declarations of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates, the suffetes (the Romans called them sufetes, which is the same position as the "shofetim", i.e. judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a completely respectable occupation, and wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as Hanno the Great in the 3rd century. BC.

Regions and cities.

The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians themselves - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the city’s rule. When ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about Carthage's relations with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea.

The Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was more than 300 km east of Eia (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors.

Colonies and trading posts were for the most part located approximately one day's sailing distance from each other. Usually they were located on islands near the coast, on capes, at the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country from where it was easy to reach the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final coastal point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and gold sand. This trade probably began early in Carthage's history.

The power included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought against the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilybaeum and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it so happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were prohibited from entering the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks gained a foothold on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great successes were achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating its power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set any goals other than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.

CARTAGE CIVILIZATION

Agriculture.

The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. The most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. Average quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine; even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the consumption of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, the gourmets of imperial Rome highly valued poultry from Africa.

Unlike Republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of Carthage's African possessions were divided among wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates farming was carried out on a scientific basis. A certain Mago, who probably lived in the 3rd century. BC, wrote a guide to farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wanting to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek agricultural manuals, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and touched on all aspects of agricultural production. Probably local Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers, worked as tenants or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the hillier areas were devoted to orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.

Craft.

Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the vibrant purple dye commonly known as Tyrian purple, dates back to the later period of Roman rule in North Africa, but may be thought to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Purple slug, a sea snail containing this dye, was best collected in the fall and winter—the unseaworthy seasons. Permanent settlements were founded in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex.

In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the Western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops have been noted. It is often very difficult to distinguish among finds Carthaginian products from objects imported from Phenicia or Greece. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple items, and the Carthaginians do not seem to have been too keen on making anything other than copies.

Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the craftsmen of Ancient Phenicia who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metal workers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the dead.

The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns filled with products intended for firing were discovered. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found throughout the areas that were part of Carthage's sphere - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is also found from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern Marseille) occupied a dominant position in trade and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade.

Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was evident in the imitation of Greek pottery and sculpture and the presence of large quantities of Greek products from this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.

Trade policy.

The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policies were largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In a treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies.

The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities maintained the complex structures of Carthage's trading harbor in good repair, as well as its military harbor, which was apparently open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered it.

It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.

Goods and trade routes.

Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly scant, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical of such evidence is Herodotus' story about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed at a certain place and laid out goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods these were is not mentioned in the story.

Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange in those western regions, where they had a monopoly, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to some evidence, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves.

It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, Southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships.

Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, huge quantities of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for games. Figs and honey are also mentioned.

It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean to obtain tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, native to Spain and North Africa. An important item of trade, due to high price, there was purple dye from crimson. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and leather and found markets to sell them.

As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs, popular in ancient times, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. They also brought with caravans ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold sand from the Gold Coast or Guinea.

The Carthaginians imported some of the best goods for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage came from Greece or from Campania in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles of Rhodian amphorae found during excavations in Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, no high-quality Attic ceramics are found here.

Language, art and religion.

We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play of Plautus Punic, where one of the characters, Hanno, delivers a monologue, apparently in genuine Punic dialect, followed by a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, there are many replicas of the same Gannon scattered throughout the play, also translated into Latin. Unfortunately, the scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these passages, the similarity of the Punic language to the Hebrew language is very helpful.

The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be classified as art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no evidence of them producing any other works than purely practical ones, such as Mago's manual on agriculture, and one or two smaller compilations of texts in Greek. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of anything that could be called “fine literature.”

Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - a Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifices, which were especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is the belief in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.

RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES

The most ancient rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.

Alliance with the Etruscans.

The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, traders and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. Their main area of ​​settlement was immediately north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having concluded an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica.

The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans expelled them from Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, enlisting the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a bridgehead in Sardinia.

The fight for Sicily.

Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had the opportunity to measure its strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Pheron in Acragantum, clearly foreshadowed to the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted together with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Himera in Sicily occurred in 480 BC. in the same day. Having confirmed the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon put up an irresistible force.

Much time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an attack on Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled an Athenian invasion (415–413 BC), utterly defeating them, it sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, which was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and for forty years fought against the Carthaginians with varying success. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing complete control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity committed by Dionysius were partly compensated by the assistance he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their fight against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who succeeded his father. However, this again did not achieve its goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of fighting, which made it impossible to talk about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded.

There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other nations, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles.

In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. A new tyrant, Agathocles, ruled in Syracuse. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles and his army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From this moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. The usual war continued with varying success.

In 278 BC The Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the southern Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself (“Pyrrhic victory”), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.

Wars with Rome.

The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians.

The war lasted 24 years (264–241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and initially achieved some successes, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a number of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising of Carthaginian mercenaries dissatisfied with the delay of money broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC.

In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca went to Spain and began the conquest of the interior. To the Roman embassy, ​​who came with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay the indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The wealth of Spain - plant and animal world, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants, could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, conflict began again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, winning several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, transferred the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

Carthage lost Spain and finally lost its position as a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the words “Delenda est Carthago” - “Carthage must be destroyed.” In 149 BC Rome's exorbitant demands forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state into a third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later the Punic language was still used in some rural areas North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.

ROMAN CARTHAGE

Julius Caesar, who had a practical bent, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it pointless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after the destruction, the city began new life. From the very beginning he prospered as a administrative center and a port area with rich agricultural production. This period of Carthage's history lasted almost 750 years.

Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the minds of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which made up a significant part of the province, was also located here.

Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage as a youth, and later achieved such fame there for his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronto, tutor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus.

The ancient Punic religion survived in Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno the Celestial, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). Nevertheless, it was North Africa that became the stronghold Christian faith, and Carthage gained prominence in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. The Carthaginian bishop was Cyprian, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine in his Confessions gives us several vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetoric school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century.

However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance. Are we listening to stories about public executions Christians, whether we read about Tertullian’s furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent worldly attire, or we meet references to some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, it never rises above the level of a large provincial city. For some time here was the capital of the Vandals (429–533 AD), who, like pirates once, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. This area was then conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until Carthage fell to the Arabs in 697.



Ancient Carthage was founded in 814 BC. colonists from the Phoenician city of Fez. According to ancient legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who was forced to flee Fez after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tyre, killed her husband Sycheus in order to take possession of his wealth.

Its name in Phoenician “Kart-Hadasht” means “New City”, perhaps in contrast to the more ancient colony of Utica.

According to another legend about the founding of the city, Elissa was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide could cover. She acted quite cunningly - taking possession of a large plot of land, cutting the skin into narrow belts. Therefore, the citadel erected at this place began to be called Birsa (which means “skin”).

Carthage was originally a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, except for the significant fact that it was not part of the Tyrian state, although it retained spiritual ties with the metropolis.

The city's economy was based primarily on intermediary trade. The craft was little developed and in its basic technical and aesthetic characteristics did not differ from the East. There was no agriculture. The Carthaginians did not have possessions beyond the narrow space of the city itself, and they had to pay tribute to the local population for the land on which the city stood. The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy, and the head of the state was the founder of the city. With her death, probably the only member of the royal family who was in Carthage disappeared. As a result, a republic was established in Carthage, and power passed to the ten “princeps” who had previously surrounded the queen.

Territorial expansion of Carthage

Terracotta mask. III-II centuries BC. Carthage.

In the first half of the 7th century. BC. A new stage in the history of Carthage begins. It is possible that many new immigrants from the metropolis moved there due to fear of the Assyrian invasion, and this led to the expansion of the city, attested by archeology. This strengthened it and allowed it to move to more active trade - in particular, Carthage replaced Phenicia proper in trade with Etruria. All this leads to significant changes in Carthage, the external expression of which is a change in the forms of ceramics, the revival of old Canaanite traditions already abandoned in the East, the emergence of new, original forms of artistic and craft products.

Already at the beginning of the second stage of its history, Carthage becomes such a significant city that it can begin its own colonization. The first colony was established by the Carthaginians around the middle of the 7th century. BC. on Ebes Island off the east coast of Spain. Apparently, the Carthaginians did not want to oppose the interests of the metropolis in Southern Spain and were looking for workarounds to Spanish silver and tin. However, Carthaginian activity in the area soon ran into competition with the Greeks, who settled at the beginning of the 6th century. BC. in southern Gaul and eastern Spain. The first round of the Carthaginian-Greek wars was left to the Greeks, who, although they did not oust the Carthaginians from Ebes, managed to paralyze this important point.

Failure in the extreme west of the Mediterranean forced the Carthaginians to turn to its center. They founded a number of colonies east and west of their city and subjugated the old Phoenician colonies in Africa. Having strengthened, the Carthaginians could no longer tolerate such a situation that they paid tribute to the Libyans for their own territory. The attempt to free ourselves from tribute is associated with the name of the commander Malchus, who, having won victories in Africa, freed Carthage from tribute.

Somewhat later, in the 60-50s of the 6th century. BC, the same Malchus fought in Sicily, the result of which, apparently, was the subjugation of the Phoenician colonies on the island. And after victories in Sicily, Malchus crossed to Sardinia, but was defeated there. This defeat became for the Carthaginian oligarchs, who were afraid of the too victorious commander, a reason to sentence him to exile. In response, Malchus returned to Carthage and seized power. However, he was soon defeated and executed. Magon took the leading place in the state.

Mago and his successors had to solve difficult problems. To the west of Italy, the Greeks established themselves, threatening the interests of both the Carthaginians and some Etruscan cities. With one of these cities, Caere, Carthage was in particularly close economic and cultural contacts. In the middle of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians and Ceretians entered into an alliance directed against the Greeks who settled in Corsica. Around 535 BC At the Battle of Alalia, the Greeks defeated the combined Carthaginian-Ceretian fleet, but suffered such heavy losses that they were forced to leave Corsica. The Battle of Alalia contributed to a clearer distribution of spheres of influence in the center of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was included in the Carthaginian sphere, which was confirmed by the treaty of Carthage with Rome in 509 BC. However, the Carthaginians were never able to completely capture Sardinia. A whole system of fortresses, ramparts and ditches separated their possessions from the territory of the free Sardis.

The Carthaginians, led by rulers and generals from the Magonid family, fought a stubborn struggle on all fronts: in Africa, Spain and Sicily. In Africa, they subjugated all the Phoenician colonies located there, including ancient Utica, which for a long time did not want to become part of their power, waged war with the Greek colony of Cyrene, located between Carthage and Egypt, repulsed the attempt of the Spartan prince Dorieus to establish himself east of Carthage and ousted the Greeks from the emerging there were their cities to the west of the capital. They launched an offensive against the local tribes. In a stubborn struggle, the Magonids managed to subdue them. Part of the conquered territory was directly subordinated to Carthage, forming its agricultural territory - chora. The other part was left to the Libyans, but was subject to the strict control of the Carthaginians, and the Libyans had to pay heavy taxes to their masters and serve in their army. The heavy Carthaginian yoke more than once caused powerful uprisings of the Libyans.

Phoenician ring with comb. Carthage. Gold. VI-V centuries BC.

In Spain at the end of the 6th century. BC. The Carthaginians took advantage of the Tartessian attack on Gades to, under the pretext of protecting their half-blooded city, intervene in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula. They captured Hades, which did not want to peacefully submit to its “savior,” which was followed by the collapse of the Tartessian state. Carthaginians at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. established control over its remains. However, the attempt to extend it to South-Eastern Spain caused strong resistance from the Greeks. At the naval battle of Artemisium, the Carthaginians were defeated and were forced to abandon their attempt. But the strait at the Pillars of Hercules remained under their control.

At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC. Sicily became the scene of a fierce Carthaginian-Greek battle. Having failed in Africa, Dorieus decided to establish himself in the west of Sicily, but was defeated by the Carthaginians and killed.

His death became the reason for the Syracusan tyrant Gelon to war with Carthage. In 480 BC. The Carthaginians, having entered into an alliance with Xerxes, who was advancing on Balkan Greece at that time, and taking advantage of the difficult political situation in Sicily, where some of the Greek cities opposed Syracuse and entered into an alliance with Carthage, launched an attack on the Greek part of the island. But in the fierce battle of Himera they were completely defeated, and their commander Hamilcar, son of Mago, died. As a result, the Carthaginians had difficulty holding on to the small part of Sicily they had previously captured.

The Magonids made attempts to establish themselves on the Atlantic coasts of Africa and Europe. For this purpose, in the first half of the 5th century. BC. two expeditions were undertaken:

1. in a southerly direction under the leadership of Hanno,
2. in the north, led by Gimilkon.

So in the middle of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginian state was formed, which at that time became the largest and one of the strongest states in the Western Mediterranean. It included -

• the northern coast of Africa west of Greek Cyrenaica and a number of inland areas of that continent, as well as a small part of the Atlantic coast immediately south of the Pillars of Hercules;
• the southwestern part of Spain and a significant part of the Balearic Islands off the eastern coast of this country;
• Sardinia (actually only part of it);
• Phoenician cities in western Sicily;
• islands between Sicily and Africa.

The internal situation of the Carthaginian state

Position of the cities, allies and subjects of Carthage

The supreme god of the Carthaginians is Baal Hammon. Terracotta. I century AD Carthage.

This power was a complex phenomenon. Its core consisted of Carthage itself with the territory directly subordinate to it - Chora. Chora was located directly outside the city walls and was divided into separate territorial districts, governed by a special official; each district included several communities.

With the expansion of the Carthaginian power, non-African possessions were sometimes included in the chorus, such as the part of Sardinia captured by the Carthaginians. Another component of the power were the Carthaginian colonies, which exercised supervision over the surrounding lands, were in some cases centers of trade and craft, and served as a reservoir for absorbing the “surplus” population. They had certain rights, but were under the control of a special resident sent from the capital.

The power included the old colonies of Tire. Some of them (Gades, Utica, Kossoura) were officially considered equal to the capital, others legally occupied a lower position. But the official position and the true role in the power of these cities did not always coincide. Thus, Utica was practically completely subordinate to Carthage (which later led more than once to the fact that this city, under favorable conditions for it, took an anti-Carthaginian position), and the legally inferior cities of Sicily, in whose loyalty the Carthaginians were especially interested, enjoyed significant privileges.

The power included tribes and cities that were subject to Carthage. These were Libyans outside the Chora and subject tribes of Sardinia and Spain. They were also in different positions. The Carthaginians did not interfere unnecessarily in their internal affairs, limiting themselves to taking hostages, recruiting them for military service and a rather heavy tax.

The Carthaginians also ruled over their “allies.” They governed themselves, but were deprived of foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. Their attempt to evade submission to the Carthaginians was considered a rebellion. Some of them were also subject to taxes, their loyalty was ensured by hostages. But the further from the borders of the power, the more independent the local kings, dynasts and tribes became. A grid of territorial divisions was superimposed on this entire complex conglomerate of cities, peoples and tribes.

Economics and social structure

The creation of the power led to significant changes in the economic and social structure of Carthage. With the advent of land holdings, where the estates of aristocrats were located, a variety of agriculture began to develop in Carthage. It provided even more food to the Carthaginian merchants (however, the merchants were often wealthy landowners themselves), and this stimulated the further growth of Carthaginian trade. Carthage becomes one of the largest trading centers in the Mediterranean.

A large number of subordinate populations appeared, located at different levels of the social ladder. At the very top of this ladder stood the Carthaginian slave-owning aristocracy, which constituted the top of the Carthaginian citizenship - the “people of Carthage”, and at the very bottom were slaves and related groups of the dependent population. Between these extremes there was a whole range of foreigners, "metecs", the so-called "Sidonian men" and other categories of the incomplete, semi-dependent and dependent population, including residents of subordinate territories.

A contrast arose between Carthaginian citizenship and the rest of the population of the state, including slaves. The civil collective itself consisted of two groups -

1. aristocrats, or "powerful ones", and
2. “small”, i.e. plebs.

Despite the division into two groups, citizens acted together as a cohesive natural association of oppressors, interested in the exploitation of all other inhabitants of the state.

System of property and power in Carthage

The material basis of the civil collective was communal property, which appeared in two forms: the property of the entire community (for example, an arsenal, shipyards, etc.) and the property of individual citizens (lands, workshops, shops, ships, except state ones, especially military ones, etc.). d.). Along with communal property, there was no other sector. Even the property of temples was brought under the control of the community.

Sarcophagus of the priestess. Marble. IV-III centuries BC. Carthage.

The civil collective, in theory, had all the completeness state power. We do not know exactly what positions were occupied by Malchus, who seized power, and the Magonids who came after him to rule the state (sources in this regard are very contradictory). In fact, their situation seemed to resemble that of the Greek tyrants. Under the leadership of the Magonids, the Carthaginian state was actually created. But then it seemed to the Carthaginian aristocrats that this family had become “difficult for the freedom of the state,” and the grandchildren of Mago were expelled. Expulsion of the Magonids in the middle of the 5th century. BC. led to the establishment of a republican form of government.

The highest power in the republic, at least officially, and at critical moments in fact, belonged to the people's assembly, which embodied the sovereign will of the civil collective. In fact, leadership was exercised by oligarchic councils and magistrates elected from among wealthy and noble citizens, primarily two sufet, in whose hands executive power was held throughout the year.

The people could intervene in the affairs of government only in case of disagreements among the rulers, which arose during periods of political crises. The people also had the right to choose, although very limited, councilors and magistrates. In addition, the “people of Carthage” were tamed in every possible way by the aristocrats, who gave them a share of the benefits from the existence of the power: not only the “mighty”, but also the “small” made profits from the maritime and trading power of Carthage, people sent for supervision were recruited from the “plebs” over subordinate communities and tribes, participation in wars provided a certain benefit, because, despite the presence of a significant mercenary army, citizens were still not completely separated from military service, they were represented at various levels of the ground army, from privates to commanders, and especially in the navy.

Thus, a self-sufficient civil collective was formed in Carthage, possessing sovereign power and relying on communal property, next to which there was neither royal power standing above citizenship nor a non-communal sector in socio-economic terms. Therefore, we can say that the polis arose here, i.e. this form of economic, social and political organization of citizens, which is characteristic of the ancient version of ancient society. Comparing the situation in Carthage with the situation in the metropolis, it should be noted that the cities of Phenicia itself, with all the development of the commodity economy, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the development of ancient society, and Carthage became an ancient state.

The formation of the Carthaginian polis and the formation of a power were the main content of the second stage of the history of Carthage. The Carthaginian power arose during the fierce struggle of the Carthaginians with both the local population and the Greeks. Wars with the latter were of a distinctly imperialist nature, because they were fought for the seizure and exploitation of foreign territories and peoples.

Rise of Carthage

From the second half of the 5th century. BC. The third stage of Carthaginian history begins. The power had already been created, and now the talk was about its expansion and attempts to establish hegemony in the Western Mediterranean. The main obstacle to this was initially the same Western Greeks. In 409 BC. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal landed in Motia, and a new round of wars in Sicily began, which lasted intermittently for more than a century and a half.

Gilded bronze cuirass. III-II centuries BC. Carthage.

Initially, success leaned towards Carthage. The Carthaginians subdued the Elims and Sicans who lived in western Sicily and began an attack on Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city on the island and the most implacable enemy of Carthage. In 406, the Carthaginians besieged Syracuse, and only the plague that began in the Carthaginian camp saved the Syracusans. World 405 BC assigned the western part of Sicily to Carthage. True, this success turned out to be fragile, and the border between Carthaginian and Greek Sicily always remained pulsating, moving either to the east or to the west as one side or another succeeded.

The failures of the Carthaginian army almost immediately responded to the aggravation of internal contradictions in Carthage, including powerful uprisings of the Libyans and slaves. End of the 5th - first half of the 4th century. BC. were a time of intense clashes within citizenship, both between separate groups of aristocrats, and, apparently, between the “plebs” involved in these clashes and aristocratic groups. At the same time, slaves rose up against their masters, and subject peoples against the Carthaginians. And only with calm within the state was the Carthaginian government able in the middle of the 4th century. BC. resume external expansion.

The Carthaginians then established control over southeast Spain, something they had tried unsuccessfully to do a century and a half earlier. In Sicily, they launched a new offensive against the Greeks and achieved a number of successes, once again finding themselves under the walls of Syracuse and even capturing their port. The Syracusans were forced to turn to their metropolis Corinth for help, and from there an army arrived led by the capable commander Timoleon. The commander of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily, Hanno, failed to prevent Timoleon's landing and was recalled to Africa, while his successor was defeated and cleared Syracuse harbor. Hanno, returning to Carthage, decided to take advantage of the situation that arose in connection with this and seize power. After the failure of the coup, he fled the city, armed 20 thousand slaves and called the Libyans and Moors to arms. The rebellion was defeated, Hanno, along with all his relatives, was executed, and only his son Gisgon managed to escape death and was expelled from Carthage.

However, soon the turn of affairs in Sicily forced the Carthaginian government to turn to Gisgono. The Carthaginians suffered a severe defeat from Timoleon, and then a new army led by Gisgon was sent there. Gisgon entered into an alliance with some of the tyrants of the Greek cities of the island and defeated individual detachments of Timoleon's army. This allowed in 339 BC. conclude a peace relatively beneficial for Carthage, according to which he retained his possessions in Sicily. After these events, the Hannonid family became the most influential in Carthage for a long time, although there could be no talk of any tyranny, as was the case with the Magonids.

The wars with the Syracusan Greeks went on as usual and with varying degrees of success. At the end of the 4th century. BC. the Greeks even landed in Africa, directly threatening Carthage. The Carthaginian commander Bomilcar decided to take advantage of the opportunity and seize power. But the citizens spoke out against him, suppressing the rebellion. And soon the Greeks were repulsed from the Carthaginian walls and returned to Sicily. The attempt of the Epirus king Pyrrhus to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily in the 70s was also unsuccessful. III century BC. All these endless and tedious wars showed that neither the Carthaginians nor the Greeks had the strength to take Sicily from each other.

The emergence of a new rival - Rome

The situation changed in the 60s. III century BC, when a new predator intervened in this fight - Rome. In 264, the first war began between Carthage and Rome. In 241 it ended with the complete loss of Sicily.

This outcome of the war exacerbated the contradictions in Carthage and gave rise to an acute internal crisis there. Its most striking manifestation was a powerful uprising, in which mercenary soldiers took part, dissatisfied with the non-payment of money owed to them, the local population, who sought to throw off the heavy Carthaginian oppression, and slaves who hated their masters. The uprising took place in the immediate vicinity of Carthage, probably also covering Sardinia and Spain. The fate of Carthage hung in the balance. With great difficulty and at the cost of incredible cruelty, Hamilcar, who had previously become famous in Sicily, managed to suppress this uprising, and then went to Spain, continuing the “pacification” of the Carthaginian possessions. Sardinia had to say goodbye, losing it to Rome, which threatened a new war.

The second aspect of the crisis was the increasing role of citizenship. The rank and file, who in theory held sovereign power, now sought to transform theory into practice. A democratic “party” arose led by Hasdrubal. A split also occurred among the oligarchy, in which two factions emerged.

1. One was led by Hanno from the influential Hannonid family - they stood for a cautious and peaceful policy that excluded a new conflict with Rome;
2. and the other - Hamilcar, representing the Barkids family (nicknamed Hamilcar - Barca, lit., “lightning”) - they were active, with the goal of taking revenge from the Romans.

Rise of the Barcids and the war with Rome

Presumably a bust of Hannibal Barca. Found in Capua in 1932

Wide circles of citizens were also interested in revenge, for whom the influx of wealth from the subject lands and from the monopoly of maritime trade was beneficial. Therefore, an alliance arose between the Barcids and the Democrats, sealed by the marriage of Hasdrubal with the daughter of Hamilcar. Relying on the support of democracy, Hamilcar managed to overcome the machinations of his enemies and go to Spain. In Spain, Hamilcar and his successors from the Barcid family, including his son-in-law Hasdrubal, greatly expanded the Carthaginian possessions.

After the overthrow of the Magonids, the ruling circles of Carthage did not allow the unification of military and civil functions in the same hands. However, during the war with Rome, they began to practice similar things, following the example of the Hellenistic states, but not at the national level, as was the case under the Magonids, but at the local level. Such was the power of the Barkids in Spain. But the Barkids exercised their powers on the Iberian Peninsula independently. Strong support for the army, close relations with democratic circles in Carthage itself and special relationship, established between the Barkids and the local population, contributed to the emergence in Spain of a semi-independent Barkid power, essentially of a Hellenistic type.

Hamilcar already considered Spain as a springboard for a new war with Rome. His son Hannibal in 218 BC provoked this war. The Second Punic War began. Hannibal himself went to Italy, leaving his brother in Spain. Military operations unfolded on several fronts, and the Carthaginian commanders (especially Hannibal) won a number of victories. But victory in the war remained with Rome.

World 201 BC deprived Carthage of the navy and all non-African possessions and forced the Carthaginians to recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa, to whose king the Carthaginians had to return all the possessions of his ancestors (this article placed a “time bomb” under Carthage), and the Carthaginians themselves had no right to wage war without permission Rome. This war not only deprived Carthage of its position great power, but also significantly limited its sovereignty. The third stage of Carthaginian history, which began with such happy omens, ended with the bankruptcy of the Carthaginian aristocracy, which had ruled the republic for so long.

Internal position

At this stage, there was no radical transformation in the economic, social and political life of Carthage. But certain changes still took place. In the 4th century. BC. Carthage began minting its own coins. A certain Hellenization of part of the Carthaginian aristocracy occurs, and two cultures emerge in Carthaginian society, as is typical for the Hellenistic world. As in the Hellenistic states, in a number of cases civil and military power was concentrated in the same hands. In Spain, a semi-independent Barkid power emerged, the heads of which felt a kinship with the then rulers of the Middle East, and where a system of relations between the conquerors and the local population appeared, similar to that existing in the Hellenistic states.

Carthage had large expanses of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states, Carthage developed large agricultural plantation farms on a large scale, employing the labor of numerous slaves. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily and then in Italy.

In the VI century. BC. or maybe in the 5th century. BC. in Carthage lived the writer and theorist of the plantation slave economy Mago, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army that besieged Carthage in the middle of the 2nd century. BC, an order was given to preserve this work. And it was really saved. By decree of the Roman Senate, Mago's work was translated from Phoenician into Latin, and then was used by all agricultural theorists in Rome. For their plantation economy, for their craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, selected by them from among prisoners of war and purchased.

Sunset of Carthage

The defeat in the second war with Rome opened the last stage of Carthaginian history. Carthage lost its power, and its possessions were reduced to a small district near the city itself. Opportunities to exploit the non-Carthaginian population disappeared. Large groups of dependent and semi-dependent populations escaped the control of the Carthaginian aristocracy. The agricultural area shrank sharply, and trade again assumed predominant importance.

Glass vessels for ointments and balms. OK. 200 BC

If earlier not only the nobility, but also the “plebs” received certain benefits from the existence of the power, now they have disappeared. This naturally caused an acute social and political crisis, which now went beyond the existing institutions.

In 195 BC. Hannibal, having become a Sufet, carried out a reform government structure, which dealt a blow to the very foundations of the previous system with its dominance of the aristocracy and opened the way to practical power, on the one hand, to broad layers of the civilian population, and on the other, to demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these layers. Under these conditions, a fierce political struggle unfolded in Carthage, reflecting acute contradictions within the civil collective. First, the Carthaginian oligarchy managed to take revenge, with the help of the Romans, forcing Hannibal to flee without completing the work he started. But the oligarchs were unable to maintain their power intact.

By the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Three political factions fought in Carthage. During this struggle, Hasdrubal became the leading figure, heading the anti-Roman group, and his position led to the establishment of a regime similar to the Greek minor tyranny. The rise of Hasdrubal frightened the Romans. In 149 BC. Rome began a third war with Carthage. This time, for the Carthaginians, it was no longer about domination over certain subjects and not about hegemony, but about their own life and death. The war practically came down to the siege of Carthage. Despite the heroic resistance of citizens, in 146 BC. the city fell and was destroyed. Most of the citizens died in the war, and the rest were taken into slavery by the Romans. The history of Phoenician Carthage is over.

The history of Carthage shows the process of transformation of the eastern city into an ancient state and the formation of a polis. And having become a polis, Carthage also experienced a crisis of this form of organization of ancient society. At the same time, it must be emphasized that we do not know what the way out of the crisis could be here, since the natural course of events was interrupted by Rome, which dealt a fatal blow to Carthage. The Phoenician cities of the metropolis, which developed in different historical conditions, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the ancient world and, having become part of the Hellenistic states, already within them moved to a new historical path.

"Carthage must be destroyed" (Latin Carthago delenda est, Carthaginem delendam esse) - a Latin catchphrase meaning an insistent call to fight an enemy or obstacle. In a broader sense, it is a constant return to the same issue, regardless of the general topic of discussion.

Carthage (Phoenix: Qart Hadasht, Latin: Carthago, Arabic: قرطاج, Carthage, French: Carthage, ancient Greek: Καρχηδών) is an ancient city in Tunisia, near the capital of the country - the city of Tunis, as part of the capital vilayet of Tunis.

The name Qart Hadasht (in Punic notation without the vowels Qrthdst) is translated from Phoenician as “new city”.

Throughout its history, Carthage was the capital of the Phoenician-founded state of Carthage, one of the largest powers in the Mediterranean. After the Punic Wars, Carthage was taken and destroyed by the Romans, but then rebuilt and became the most important city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa, a major cultural and then early Christian church center. Then captured by the Vandals and was the capital of the Vandal Kingdom. But after the Arab conquest it fell into decline again.

Currently, Carthage is a suburb of the Tunisian capital, in which the presidential residence and the University of Carthage are located.

In 1831, a society for the study of Carthage was opened in Paris. Since 1874, excavations at Carthage have been carried out under the direction of the French Academy of Inscriptions. Since 1973, research on Carthage has been carried out under the auspices of UNESCO.

Carthaginian state

Carthage founded in 814 BC e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre. After the fall of Phoenician influence, Carthage re-subordinated the former Phoenician colonies and turned into the capital of the largest state in the Western Mediterranean. By the 3rd century BC. e. The Carthaginian state subjugates Southern Spain, North Africa, western Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome (Punic Wars), it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into a province of Africa.

Location

Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

Roman era

Julius Caesar proposed to found a Roman colony on the site of the destruction of Carthage (it was founded after his death). Thanks to its convenient location on trade routes, the city soon grew again and became the capital of the Roman province of Africa, which included the lands of what is now northern Tunisia.

After Rome

During the Great Migration and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire North Africa was captured by Vandals and Alans who made Carthage the capital of their state. This state lasted until 534, when the commanders of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I returned the African lands to the empire. Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate.

A fall

After the conquest of North Africa Arabs The city of Kairouan, founded by them in 670, became the new center of the Ifriqiya region, and Carthage quickly faded away.

Ancient Carthage is a large state of Phoenician origin, the capital of which is located in the city of the same name. Its name translates as “new city”. The founding of Carthage dates back to the end of the 9th century BC. In those years, the Phoenicians traveled throughout the Mediterranean Sea, creating trading colonies, which later formed into full-fledged cities.

According to legend, Carthage was founded in 814 BC. Queen Dido. Ancient records say that she was forced to flee the city of Tire because her brother Pygmalion killed her husband Sychaeus in an effort to seize his wealth. Since the city was founded by a people who developed active trade throughout the Mediterranean, the Carthaginians themselves were distinguished by their business acumen. The founding of Carthage is associated with various myths. For example, one story says that Dido was allowed to occupy as much land as the ox hides could cover. However, she cut the skin into thin strips, and was able to occupy enough land to build a palace, called Birsa - "hide". Today, on the site where Carthage is located, or rather, its ruins, a kind of open-air museum has been created, in which everything has been done to ensure that the elements modern life were hidden and did not spoil the overall impression. The ruins of Carthage are located on the northeastern coast of the modern state of Tunisia.

When Phenicia weakened, Carthage captured a large number of other Phoenician colonies, and already in the 3rd century BC. was the most extensive and powerful state in the Mediterranean. It included North Africa (except Egypt), Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. The state of Carthage, however, could not withstand competition with the Roman Empire. During the three Punic Wars, his power was shaken and dispelled. In 146, the history of Carthage as an independent state was terminated. Its territory in North Africa was turned into a province. Although the city was destroyed, Julius Caesar made a proposal to create a colony in its place, which was taken into account after his death. In 420-430 AD. The Western Roman Empire lost control of the colony. In addition, Germanic Vandal tribes moved here and founded their own kingdom here. Ancient Carthage still had some significance after its capture Byzantine Empire, however, it was soon captured by the Arabs, after which the city was abandoned.

The history of Carthage became known to modern historians thanks to the records of ancient Greek and Roman historians. At the same time, it was possible to learn about how Carthaginian society was structured. The rich aristocracy had the greatest power in the city. The Council of Elders of 10-30 people managed all affairs in the state. There was also a national assembly, but it was rarely convened. In the 5th century BC. the Magonov family tried to achieve absolute power, however, this was avoided by creating a council of judges. This council was supposed to judge every official in the state according to his activities in his post after the termination of duties, but later it was the council of judges that became the main government body in Carthage.

Executive power belonged to two suffets. This position could only be obtained through direct purchase of votes. There is a possibility that there were other officials, but information about them has not been found. The so-called council of one hundred and four (that is how many people were included in the council of judges) was not an elected body. Each member of the council was appointed by the so-called pentarchy - special commissions, the members of which belonged to one or another aristocratic family. The form of government in Carthage was in many ways similar to the Roman one - the military leaders were not kings, they were appointed on the recommendation of the Council of Elders. The duration of the appointment remained uncertain; Carthaginian military leaders quite often inherited their post. The powers of military leaders were quite broad, but their uprisings were not recorded in history. The state of Carthage was not democratic, but there was a democratic opposition. It was able to strengthen only during the Punic Wars, which led to the death of Carthage.

Briefly about the religion of Carthage

Fall, capture, death, destruction of Carthage