Subject. Educational psychology as a science

Stages of the formation of educational psychology as an independent science.

General didactic stage (mid-18th - late 19th centuries). Experimental stage (late 19th century – mid 20th century). Formalization of educational psychology into an independent science. Pedagogical psychology(mid-20th century, at the present stage). Development theoretical foundations educational psychology. Computerization of the educational process and the development of educational psychology.

Object, subject and tasks of modern educational psychology. The structure of modern educational psychology. The connection between developmental and educational psychology: integration and differentiation. Pedagogy and psychology in the structure of the discipline. Connection of educational psychology with other sciences.

Subject. Methods of educational psychology

Methodological foundations and methods of educational psychology. General and special, theoretical and empirical methods. Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research Basic methods in educational psychology Formative experiment as one of the main methods of psychological pedagogical research and features of its application.

Topic 1. Educational psychology as a science

Topic 1. Educational psychology as a science.

Subject of educational psychology

1. Subject and structure of educational psychology

The term "educational psychology" refers to two different sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education.

Under the same term, “educational psychology,” applied science is also being developed, the goal of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice. Abroad, this applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

The term "educational psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874 (Kapterev P.F., 1999; abstract). Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to designate disciplines occupying a borderline position between pedagogy and psychology: “pedology” (O. Chrisman, 1892), “experimental pedagogy” (E. Meiman, 1907). Experimental pedagogy and educational psychology were initially interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky) (see Media Library). During the first third of the 20th century. their meanings were differentiated. Experimental pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying the data of experimental psychology to pedagogical reality; educational psychology - as a field of knowledge and the psychological basis of theoretical and practical pedagogy. (see Khrest. 1.1)

Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in conditions of training and education. It is closely related to pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology.

When considering educational psychology, like any other branch of science, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the concepts of its object and subject.

In the general scientific interpretation, the object of science is understood as the area of ​​reality that this science is aimed at studying. Often the object of study is fixed in the very name of the science.

The subject of science is the side or sides of the object of science by which it is represented in it. If an object exists independently of science, then the subject is formed together with it and is fixed in its conceptual system. An object does not capture all sides of an object, although it may include what is missing in the object. In a certain sense, the development of science is the development of its subject.

Each object can be studied by many sciences. Thus, man is studied by physiology, sociology, biology, anthropology, etc. But each science is based on its own subject, i.e. what exactly she studies in the object.

As an analysis of the points of view of various authors shows, many scientists define the status of educational psychology differently, which may indicate an ambiguity in resolving the issue of the subject of educational psychology (see animation).

For example, V.A. Krutetsky believes that educational psychology “studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, explores individual differences in these processes... patterns of formation of creative active thinking in schoolchildren... changes in the psyche, i.e. the formation of mental new formations” (Krutetsky V.A., 1972. P. 7).

A completely different point of view is shared by V.V. Davydov. He proposes that educational psychology be considered a part of developmental psychology. The scientist argues that the specifics of each age determine the nature of the manifestation of the laws of knowledge acquisition by students, therefore the teaching of a particular discipline should be structured differently. Moreover, some disciplines at certain ages are generally inaccessible to students. This is the position of V.V. Davydov is due to his emphasis on the role of development, its influence on the course of learning. He views learning as a form, and development as the content that is realized in it.

There are a number of other points of view. In the future, we will adhere to the generally accepted interpretation, according to which the subject of educational psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (Zimnyaya I.A. , 1997; abstract).

Structure of educational psychology

The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections (see Fig. 2):

1. psychology of learning;

2. psychology of education;

3. teacher psychology.

1. The subject of educational psychology is the development of cognitive activity in conditions of systematic learning. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:

1. interrelations of external and internal factors that determine differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems;

2. the relationship between the motivational and intellectual plans of learning;

3. opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child;

4. psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc. (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-uchen.html; see the laboratory of the psychology of teaching PI RAO).

Psychology of learning explores, first of all, the process of assimilation of knowledge and skills and abilities adequate to them. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence. A special task of educational psychology is the development of methods that make it possible to diagnose the level and quality of learning.

Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of Russian psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always acquired as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the acquired actions are brought to certain indicators for some of their characteristics.

Teaching is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process. The actions that make up the activity of teaching are assimilated according to the same laws as any others (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract).

Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying the patterns of formation and functioning of cognitive activity in the conditions of the existing educational system. In particular, rich experimental material has been accumulated, revealing typical shortcomings in the assimilation of various scientific concepts by students high school. The role of students’ life experience, the nature of the presented educational material in acquiring knowledge.

In the 70s XX century in educational psychology, they increasingly began to use another path: the study of the patterns of development of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in the conditions of specially organized training. Research has shown that managing the learning process significantly changes the course of acquiring knowledge and skills. The conducted research is important for finding the most optimal ways of learning and identifying conditions for effective mental development of students.

Pedagogical psychology also studies the dependence of the acquisition of knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of various personality traits on the individual characteristics of students (Nurminsky I.I. et al., 1991; abstract).

In domestic educational psychology, such theories of learning as the associative-reflex theory, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, etc. have been created. Among Western theories of learning, the behaviorist theory is most widespread (1. http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l -podjun.html; see laboratory for the study of mental development in adolescence and youth; 2. http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see laboratory of psychological foundations of new educational technologies) .

2. The subject of educational psychology is the development of personality in the context of the purposeful organization of the activities of a child and a children's team. Educational psychology studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of worldviews, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

Research in this area is aimed at studying:

b. differences in the self-awareness of students brought up in different conditions;

c. the structure of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality;

d. conditions and consequences of mental deprivation, etc. (Lishin O.V., 1997; abstract, cover).

3. The subject of teacher psychology is the psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

a. determining the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes;

b. studying the emotional stability of a teacher;

c. identifying positive features of the individual communication style of teacher and student and a number of others (Mitina L.M., 1998; abstract).

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-prof.html; see laboratory of professional development of personality PI RAO), (http://elite.far.ru/ - department of acmeology and psychology of professional activity of the Russian Academy of Civil Art under the President of the Russian Federation).

The results of psychological and pedagogical research are used in the design of teaching content and methods, the creation of teaching aids, and the development of diagnostic tools and correction of mental development.

2. Goals and objectives of educational psychology

There are a number of problems in educational psychology, the theoretical and practical significance of which justifies the identification and existence of this field of knowledge (see Fig. 3). Let's consider and discuss some of them.

1. The problem of the relationship between training and development. One of the most important problems of educational psychology is the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development.

The problem under consideration is a derivative of a general scientific problem - the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in a person or as a problem of genotypic and environmental conditioning of the human psyche and behavior (see Khrest. 1.2). The problem of genetic sources of psychology and human behavior is one of the most important in psychological and pedagogical sciences. After all, the fundamental solution to the question of the possibilities of teaching and raising children, and humans in general, depends on its correct solution (Biological..., 1977; abstract) (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html ; see laboratory of theoretical and experimental problems of developmental psychology).

What does he think? modern science, it is almost impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education and, therefore, what is given genetically cannot be re-educated. On the other hand, training and education in themselves have enormous potential in terms of the mental development of the individual, even if they do not affect the genotype itself and do not affect organic processes.

In Russian psychology, this problem was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in the early 30s. XX century (Vygotsky L.S., 1996; abstract). (http://www.vygotsky.ru/russian/vygot/vygotsky.htm; see server dedicated to Vygotsky).

He substantiated the leading role of training in development, noting that training should go ahead of development and be a source of new development.

However, this raises a number of questions:

a. How do training and education lead to development?

b. Does all learning contribute to development or only problematic and so-called developmental ones?

c. How are the biological maturation of the body, learning and development related to each other?

d. Does learning influence maturation, and if so, to what extent? Does this influence affect the fundamental solution to the question of the relationship between learning and development?

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-ob-raz.html; see group of psychology of education and development of junior schoolchildren PI RAO).

2. The problem of the relationship between training and education. Another problem, which is closely related to the previous one, is the problem of the relationship between training and education. The processes of teaching and upbringing in their unity represent a pedagogical process, the purpose of which is education, development and formation of personality. In essence, both occur through the interaction of teacher and student, educator and pupil, adult and child, located in certain living conditions, in a certain environment.

The problem under consideration includes a number of issues:

a. How do these processes interdetermine and interpenetrate each other?

b. How do different types of activities influence learning and education?

c. What are the psychological mechanisms of assimilation of knowledge, formation of abilities, skills and assimilation of social norms and norms of behavior?

d. What are the differences between pedagogical influence in teaching and upbringing?

e. How does the learning process itself and the process of upbringing proceed? These and many other questions form the essence of the problem under consideration (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see group for the study of factors in the formation of individuality PI RAO).

3. The problem of taking into account sensitive periods of development in education. One of the most important problems in the study of child development is the problem of finding and maximizing the use of the sensitive period in his life for the development of each child. Sensitive periods in psychology are understood as periods of ontogenetic development, when a developing organism is especially sensitive to certain types of influences from the surrounding reality. For example, at the age of about five years, children are especially sensitive to the development of phenomenal hearing, and after this period this sensitivity decreases somewhat. Sensitive periods are periods of optimal development of certain aspects of the psyche: processes and properties. An excessively early start in learning something can have an adverse effect on mental development, just as a very late start in learning can be ineffective (Obukhova L.F., 1996, abstract).

The difficulty of the problem under consideration is that all sensitive periods of development of the child’s intellect and personality, their beginning, duration and completion are not known. Approaching the study of children individually, it is necessary to learn to predict the onset of various sensitive periods of development for each child.

4. The problem of children's giftedness. The problem of giftedness in Russian psychology began to be studied more closely only in the last decade. General talent refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children are “children who display one or another special or general giftedness” (Russian…, 1993-1999, T. 2. P. 77; abstract).

In this regard, a number of questions arise related to the identification and training of gifted children:

a. What is characteristic of the age sequence of manifestation of giftedness?

b. By what criteria and signs can one judge the giftedness of students?

c. How to establish and study the giftedness of children in the process of training and education, in the course of students performing one or another meaningful activity?

d. How to promote the development of giftedness in students educational process?

e. How to combine the development of special abilities with broad general education training and the comprehensive development of the student’s personality? (Leites N.S., 2000; abstract); (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-odar.html; see laboratory of psychology of giftedness PI RAO), (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/lab-tvor.html ; see creativity diagnostic group).

5. The problem of children's readiness for school. The readiness of children to study at school is “the totality of the morphological and psychological characteristics of the older child preschool age, ensuring a successful transition to a systematic, organized schooling"(Russian…, T.1. P. 223-224).

In the pedagogical and psychological literature, along with the term “readiness for schooling,” the term “school maturity” is used. These terms are almost synonymous, although the second one more reflects the psychophysiological aspect of organic maturation.

The problem of children's readiness for schooling is revealed through the search for answers to a number of questions:

a. How do the living conditions of a child and his assimilation of social experience in the course of communication with peers and adults influence the formation of school readiness?

b. What system of requirements imposed on a child by the school determines psychological readiness for schooling?

c. What is meant by psychological readiness for schooling?

d. What criteria and indicators can be used to judge psychological readiness for school?

e. How to build correctional and developmental programs to achieve school readiness? (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html; see laboratory of scientific foundations of children's practical psychology PI RAO).

The solution to the listed and other psychological and pedagogical problems requires a teacher or educator to have high professional qualifications, a significant part of which consists of psychological knowledge, skills and abilities (http://www.voppy.ru/; see the website of the journal “Questions of Psychology”).

Tasks of educational psychology

The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities, educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are (see animation):

a. disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development trainee;

b. determination of the mechanisms and patterns of student mastering sociocultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the individual consciousness of the student and use in various situations;

c. determining the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.);

d. determining the characteristics of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

e. studying the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity;

f. determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific and theoretical thinking;

g. determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge, formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;

h. development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system, etc.

3. The relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

The relationship between educational psychology and other sciences

Clarifying the subject of educational psychology also requires determining its place among other sciences, first of all, establishing its relationship to pedagogical disciplines, to general and developmental psychology.

According to B.G. Ananyev, educational psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which “has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become a sphere of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations” (Ananyev B.G., 2001; abstract).

In connection with this “borderline” nature of pedagogy and psychology, we consider it necessary, first of all, to clarify the relationship between these two sciences.

Psychology is organically connected with pedagogy (see Fig. 5).

There are several communication “nodes” between them (see Fig. 6).

The main communication center is the subject of these sciences. Psychology studies the laws of development of the human psyche. Pedagogy develops laws for managing personal development. The upbringing and education of children and adults is nothing more than a purposeful change in this psyche (for example, thinking, activity). Consequently, they cannot be carried out by specialists who do not have psychological knowledge.

The second connection point between the two sciences is the indicators and criteria of a person’s training and education. The degree of advanced knowledge of schoolchildren is recorded by changes in memory, knowledge reserves, abilities to use knowledge for practical purposes, mastery of cognitive activity techniques, speed of knowledge reproduction, mastery of terminology, skills of transferring knowledge to non-standard situations, etc. Good breeding is fixed in motivated actions, a system of conscious and impulsive behavior, stereotypes, activity skills and judgments. All this means that the symptoms of achievements in the educational work of adults with children are shifts in the psyche, in the thinking and behavior of students. In other words, the results of pedagogical activity are diagnosed by changes in the psychological characteristics of those being educated.

The third connection point is research methods. Interscientific communications between two branches of knowledge also take place in the research methods of pedagogy and psychology. Many psychological research tools successfully serve to solve pedagogical research problems (for example, psychometrics, paired comparison, rating, psychological tests, etc.).

The relationship between educational psychology and branches of psychology

The connection between educational psychology and related sciences, including developmental psychology, is two-way (see Fig. 7). It is guided by a research methodology that represents a “projection” of general psychological science; uses data supplied by developmental psychology and other sciences. At the same time, educational psychology itself supplies data not only for pedagogical science, but also for general and developmental psychology, occupational psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, etc.

Recently, developmental psychology has become increasingly important as a foundation for educational psychology. Developmental psychology is a theory of mental development in ontogenesis. She studies the patterns of transition from one period to another based on changes in the types of leading activities, changes in the social situation of development, the nature of a person’s interaction with other people (Obukhova L.F., 1996; abstract). (http://flogiston.ru/arch/obukhova_1.shtml; see the electronic version of the book by L.F. Obukhova).

Age is characterized not by the relationship of individual mental functions, but by those specific tasks of mastering aspects of reality that are accepted and solved by a person, as well as age-related neoplasms.

Based on this, V.V. Davydov formulated a number of principles of developmental psychology (see Fig. 8):

Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent ages.

Each age has its own development reserves, which can be mobilized during the development of a child’s specially organized activity in relation to the surrounding reality and to his activities.

The characteristics of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc. (Psychology..., 1978).

All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance when creating a psychological theory of assimilation of sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, based on them, the following principles of educational psychology can be identified (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):

a. Education is based on data from developmental psychology about age reserves, focusing on the “tomorrow” of development.

b. Education is organized taking into account the existing individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.

c. Learning cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the practice of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student’s personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

4. History of the formation of educational psychology

Historical aspects of educational psychology

1.4.1. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century.

1.4.2. Second stage - with late XIX V. until the beginning of the 50s. XX century

1.4.3. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now

The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century.

I.A. Zimnyaya identifies three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997; abstract).

a. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. can be called general didactic.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. and until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology. Let us consider in more detail each of the named stages of development of educational psychology.

I.A. Zimnyaya called the first stage general didactic with a clearly felt need to “psychologize pedagogy” (according to Pestalozzi).

The role of psychology in the practice of teaching and upbringing was realized long before educational psychology became an independent entity. scientific industry. Ya.A. Comenius, J. Locke, J.J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi, F.A. Disterweg et al. emphasized the need to build the pedagogical process on the basis of psychological knowledge about the child.

Analyzing the contribution of G. Pestalozzi, P.F. Kapterev notes that “Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of initiative, self-development” (Kapterev P.F., 1982. P. 293). Pointing out the differences in the development of a child’s mental, physical and moral abilities, Pestalozzi emphasized the importance of their connection and close interaction in learning, which moves from simple to more complex, in order to ultimately ensure the harmonious development of a person.

The idea of ​​developmental education by K.D. Ushinsky called it “the great discovery of Pestalozzi” (Ushinsky K.D., 1948. P. 95). Pestalozzi considered the main goal of education to be to excite children's minds to active activity, to develop their cognitive abilities, to develop in them the ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of learned concepts. He developed a system of exercises arranged in a certain sequence and aimed at setting in motion the inherent natural forces of man's desire for activity. However, Pestalozzi to some extent subordinated to the task of student development another, no less important task of teaching - equipping students with knowledge. Criticizing the school of his day for verbalism and rote learning, which dulled the spiritual powers of children, the scientist sought to psychologize education, to build it in accordance with the “natural way of knowledge” of a child. Pestalozzi considered the starting point of this path to be the sensory perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Follower of I.G. Pestalozzi was F.A. Disterweg, who considered conformity to nature, cultural conformity, and self-activity as the main principles of education (Disterweg F.A., 1956).

Disterweg emphasized that only by knowing psychology and physiology can a teacher ensure the harmonious development of children. In psychology, he saw “the basis of the science of education,” and believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development. The task of education is to ensure such independent development. The scientist understood initiative as activity, initiative and considered it the most important personality trait. He saw the development of children's initiative as both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education.

F. Disterweg determined the value of individual academic subjects based on how much they stimulate the student’s mental activity; contrasted the developmental teaching method with the scientific (communicating) one. He formulated the fundamentals of didactics of developmental education in clear rules.

The work of K.D. Ushinsky was of particular importance for the development of educational psychology. His works, primarily the book “Man as a Subject of Education. The Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology” (1868-1869), created the prerequisites for the emergence of educational psychology in Russia. The scientist viewed education as “the creation of history.” The subject of education is a person, and if pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first get to know him in all respects. This meant studying the physical and mental characteristics of a person, the influences of “unintentional education” - the social environment, the “spirit of the times”, his culture and social relations.

K.D. Ushinsky gave his interpretation of the most complex and always relevant issues:

a. about the psychological nature of education;

b. the limits and possibilities of education, the relationship between education and training;

c. limits and possibilities of learning;

d. the relationship between education and development;

e. a combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education.

The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s. XX century

The second stage is associated with the period when educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, having accumulated the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.

As an independent field of knowledge, educational psychology began to take shape in the middle of the 19th century, and developed intensively since the 80s. XIX century

The significance of the initial period of development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the fact that in the 60s. XIX century fundamental provisions were formulated that determine the formation of educational psychology as an independent scientific discipline. At that time, tasks were set on which the efforts of scientists should be concentrated, problems were identified that needed to be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis.

Guided by the needs of education and training, the task of forming a comprehensive personality, scientists of that period raised the question of a broad, comprehensive study of the child and the scientific basis for guiding his development. The idea of ​​a holistic, comprehensive study of the child sounded very convincing. Consciously not wanting to limit the theoretical basis of pedagogy to psychology alone, they stimulated the development of research at the intersection of different sciences. Consideration in unity and interconnection of the three main sources of pedagogy - psychology, physiology, logic - served as the basis for contacts between psychology, physiology and medicine, between psychology and didactics.

This period is characterized by the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology (J.M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, etc.), in which, based on a set of psychophysiological, Anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements were used to determine the characteristics of the child’s behavior in order to diagnose his development (see animation).

Pedology(from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) - a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.

The founder of pedology is the American psychologist S. Hall, who created the first pedological laboratory in 1889; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Chrisment. But back in 1867 K.D. Ushinsky in his work “Man as a Subject of Education” anticipated the emergence of pedology: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first know him in all respects.”

In the West, pedology was studied by S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Maiman, V. Preyer and others. The founder of Russian pedology is the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. The remarkable scientist V.M. also made a great contribution to science. Bekhterev.

The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: normal scientific life continued with heated discussions in which approaches were developed and the development difficulties inevitable for a young science were overcome.

Pedology strived to study the child, and to study it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all influencing factors. P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941) defined pedology as the science of the age-related development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment (Blonsky P.P., 1999; abstract).

Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; The theory and practice of psychodiagnostics were developed. In Leningrad and Moscow, there were institutes of pedology, where representatives of various sciences tried to trace the development of a child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropometry, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical studies were combined with everyday practical work.

In the 30s XX century criticism began of many provisions of pedology (problems of the subject of pedology, bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), which resulted in two resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Pedology was crushed, many scientists were repressed, the fates of others were crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed. Pedologists you were erased from curricula all universities. Labels were generously pasted: L.S. Vygotsky is declared an “eclectic,” M.Ya. Basov and P.P. Blonsky - “propagandists of fascist ideas.” Fortunately, many were able to avoid a similar fate by being able to retrain. For more than half a century, it was carefully hidden that the flower of Soviet psychology - Basov, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Kornilov, Kostyuk, Leontyev, Luria, Elkonin, Myasishchev and others, as well as teachers Zankov and Sokolyansky were pedologists. More recently, when publishing Vygotsky’s works, his lectures on pedology had to be renamed lectures on psychology (http://virlib.eunnet.net/sofia/05-2002/text/0523.html; see article by E.M. Strukchinskaya “L .S. Vygotsky about pedology and related sciences") (see Media Library).

A number of works by P.P. Blonsky, works by L.S. Vygotsky and his colleagues in child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. Works of I.M. Shchelovanova, M.P. Denisova, N.L. Figurin, created in pedological institutions by name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund of modern knowledge about the child and his development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological research of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky provided the opportunity to develop theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. (http://www.genesis.ru/pedologia/home.htm; see the magazine website " Pedology").

The connection between psychology and pedagogy has given a powerful impetus to the study of age-related characteristics of children and the identification of conditions and factors determining child development. The desire to make pedagogy psychological, to introduce psychology into the pedagogical process became the basis on which the system of educational psychology was built (although the term “educational psychology” itself was not yet used at that time), led to the participation of scientists from various specialties in the development of its problems.

By the end of the 19th century. in Russian psychological and pedagogical science not only the main areas have been formed scientific activity, but significant data were accumulated that made it possible to formulate practical problems.

The idea of ​​psychophysiological research of a child and the use of its results in pedagogical practice was reinforced in justifying the possibility of studying mental phenomena experimentally. The use of experiment in learning conditions undertaken by I.A. Sikorsky in 1879, did not initially receive a wide response in science. But with the formation of psychological laboratories, starting in the mid-80s, the experiment began to enter into life, and an active desire arose to connect the pedagogical process with it, i.e. create a qualitatively new science of education and training.

The successes of psychological and pedagogical science aroused interest, on the one hand, among practicing teachers, and on the other hand, among philosophers and psychologists who had not previously dealt with issues of school education. Teachers felt a clear need for solid psychological knowledge, and psychologists realized how much interesting and instructive there is in school life. The state of science and practice has clearly shown that school and science must meet each other halfway. But the whole question was how to do this, how to organize psychological research so that it was directly aimed at solving pedagogical tasks. Equally inevitable was the question of who should conduct such research.

Solving complex theoretical and methodological problems in educational psychology became impossible without their discussion and comprehensive analysis. This was also required by the further development of specific research and the determination of the main directions of movement of research thought. In other words, a significant expansion of scientific and organizational activities was necessary.

The development of educational psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly established on scientific foundations. The status of this science has been established as an independent branch of knowledge, which has important theoretical and practical significance. Research in this area has taken a leading place in Russian psychological and pedagogical science. This was due to successes in the study of age-related development, which ensured the authority of developmental and educational psychology not only in the scientific field, but also in solving practical problems of upbringing and teaching.

Not only in science, but also in public opinion, the point of view has been established, according to which knowledge of the laws of child development is the basis for the correct construction of an education system. Therefore, scientists of various specialties, the best Russian minds, outstanding theorists and organizers of science, who enjoyed great authority, were involved in the development of these problems, in particular: V.M. Bekhterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov. A whole galaxy of domestic psychologists has formed who are actively involved in theoretical and organizational issues of studying child development and building the scientific foundations of education and training. This galaxy included primarily P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Rubinshtein, I.A. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others. Thanks to the efforts of these scientists, intensive theoretical, methodological and scientific-organizational activities developed aimed at deepening and expanding scientific work, to promote psychological and pedagogical knowledge among practical workers in the education system, to improve their qualifications. On their initiative, specialized scientific centers began to be created to provide research and educational activities and personnel training. Small laboratories, clubs, and classrooms for studying the development of children under certain conditions have become widespread. educational institutions, psychological and pedagogical societies, scientific and pedagogical circles were created who wanted to direct their efforts to improve education and training. Pedagogical psychology became integral part content of education in pedagogical educational institutions. The question was raised about studying the basics of psychology in high school, and training courses in psychology were developed.

In domestic educational psychology since the 30s. Research on the procedural aspects of training and development was launched:

a. the relationship between perception and thinking in cognitive activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, S.N. Shabalin);

b. the relationship between memory and thinking (A.N. Leontyev, L.V. Zankov, A.A. Smirnov, P.I. Zinchenko, etc.);

c. development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, etc.);

d. mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh.I. Shif, N.A. Menchinskaya, G.S. Kostyuk, etc.);

e. the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children (N.G. Morozova and others).

In the 40s Many studies have appeared on the psychological issues of mastering educational material in various subjects: a) arithmetic (N.A. Menchinskaya); b) native language and literature (D.N. Bogoyavlensky, L.I. Bozhovich, O.I. Nikiforova), etc. A number of works are related to the tasks of teaching reading and writing (N.A. Rybnikov, L.M. Shvarts, T.G. Egorov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).

The main results of the research were reflected in the works of A.P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, M. Offner, E. Meiman, V.A. Laya and others, in which the features of memorization, speech development, intelligence, the mechanism of skill development, etc. are studied, as well as in the studies of G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Dewey, S. Frenet, Ed. Clapeda; in the experimental study of learning characteristics (J. Watson, Ed. Tolman, G. Ghazri, T. Hull, B. Skinner); in the study of the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, Sh. And K. Byullerov, V. Stern, etc.); in the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the M. Montessori school.

The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now

The basis for identifying the third stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.

So, in 1954 B.F. Skinner put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning, and in the 60s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built an integral system of problem-based learning, which, on the one hand, continued the development of the system of J. Dewey, who believed that learning should proceed through problem solving, and on the other hand, it correlated with the provisions of O. Seltz, K. Duncker, S.L. Rubinshteina, A.M. Matyushkin and others about the problematic nature of thinking, its phase, the beginning of the emergence of thought in problematic situation(P.P. Blonsky, S.L. Rubinstein).

In 1957-1958 the first publications of P.Ya. appeared. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, which absorbed the main achievements and prospects of educational psychology. At the same time, in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov developed the theory of developmental education, which arose in the 70s. based general theory educational activities (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankova.

In the period 40-50s. S.L. Rubinstein in “Fundamentals of Psychology” (Rubinstein S.L., 1999; abstract) gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge, which was developed in detail from different positions by L.B. Itelson, E.N. Kabanova-Meller and others, as well as N.A. Menchinskaya and D.N. Bogoyavlensky in the concept of exteriorization of knowledge. Appeared in the mid-70s. the book by I. Lingart “The Process and Structure of Human Learning” (Lingart I., 1970) and the book by I.I. Ilyasov “The structure of the learning process” (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract) made it possible to make broad generalizations in this area.

Noteworthy is the emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology - suggestionopedia, suggestionology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the teacher’s control of the student’s unconscious mental processes of perception and memory using the effect of hypermnesia and suggestion. On this basis, methods have been developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G.A. Kitaygorodskaya), group cohesion, and group dynamics in the process of such learning (A.V. Petrovsky, L.A. Karpenko).

In the 50-70s. At the intersection of social and educational psychology, many studies were carried out on the structure of the children's team, the status of the child among his peers (A.V. Petrovsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of ​​research relates to the issues of training and raising difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality among adolescents in some informal associations (D.I. Feldshtein).

During the same period, there were trends towards the formulation of complex problems - educational training and educational upbringing. Actively being studied:

a. psychological and pedagogical factors of children's readiness for school;

c. psychological reasons for schoolchildren’s academic failure (N.A. Menchinskaya);

d. psychological and pedagogical criteria for teaching effectiveness (I.S. Yakimanskaya).

Since the late 70s. XX century work intensified in the scientific and practical direction - the creation of a psychological service at school (I.V. Dubrovina, Yu.M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of educational psychology have emerged:

a. development of conceptual approaches to the activities of psychological services,

b. equipping it with diagnostic tools,

c. Preparation practical psychologists.

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html; see laboratory of scientific foundations of children's practical psychology PI RAO).

All the diversity of these theories, however, had one common point - the theoretical justification of the most adequate, from the authors' point of view, to the requirements of society, the system of education - teaching (educational activity). Accordingly, certain areas of study were formed. Within the framework of these areas of training, its common problems have also emerged: activation of forms of training, pedagogical cooperation, communication, management of knowledge acquisition, development of students as the goal of learning, etc.

For example, domestic educational psychology studies:

a. psychological mechanisms for managing learning (N.F. Talyzina, L.N. Landa, etc.), the educational process as a whole (V.S. Lazarev, etc.);

b. managing the process of mastering generalized methods of action (V.V. Davydov, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.);

c. educational motivation (A.K. Markova, A.B. Orlov, etc.);

d. individual psychological factors influencing the success of this process;

e. cooperation (G.A. Tsukerman and others), etc.;

f. personal characteristics of students and teachers (V.S. Merlin, N.S. Leites, A.N. Leontiev, etc.), etc.

Thus, at this stage of development, educational psychology becomes more and more voluminous.

So, educational psychology is a science about the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person’s mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process. In general, we can say that educational psychology studies psychological issues of managing the pedagogical process, studies learning processes, the formation of cognitive processes, etc.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the relationship between training and development, the relationship between training and education, taking into account sensitive periods of development in education; work with gifted children, the problem of children’s readiness for school, etc.

Consequently, the general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process. This determines the structure of this branch of psychology: the psychology of learning, the psychology of education, the psychology of teachers.

The term "educational psychology" is used to refer to two sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education. Under the same name “educational psychology”, applied science is also developing, the goal of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice. Abroad, the applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

a. Pedagogical psychology is a science about the facts, mechanisms and patterns of human mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process.

b. Pedagogical psychology- a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become the sphere of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the relationship between training and development; the relationship between training and education; taking into account sensitive periods of development in learning; working with gifted children; readiness of children for schooling, etc.

a. The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process.

b. The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections: psychology of learning; psychology of education; teacher psychology.

There are three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A.):

a. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. can be called general didactic with a clearly felt need to “psychologize pedagogy” (according to Pestalozzi).

b. The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s of the 20th century, when educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.

Pedology(from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science; lit. - the science of children) - a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy

Self-test questions

1. What is the subject of educational psychology?

2. Indicate the features of historical changes in the subject of educational psychology.

3. What is the essence of biogenetic and sociogenetic directions in the development of educational psychology?

4. Name the main tasks of educational psychology.

5. How is the unity of developmental psychology and educational psychology manifested in the system of psychological knowledge about the child?

6. What are the main areas of action of educational psychology and pedagogy?

7. Name the main branches of educational psychology.

8. Describe the main problems of educational psychology.

9. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between development and training?

10. Expand the applied aspect for pedagogical practice in solving the problem of identifying sensitive periods in development.

11. What approaches to solving the problem of children’s readiness to study at school exist in domestic science and practice?

12. What is the problem of optimal psychological preparation of teachers and educators?

13. Name the main stages in the development of educational psychology.

14. What is characteristic of each stage of development of educational psychology?

15. What are the features of pedology as a science?

16. What basic research has been launched since the 30s. XIX century in the field of procedural aspects of training and education?

17. What fundamentally new direction arose in educational psychology in the 60-70s. XX century?

Bibliography

1. Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. St. Petersburg, 2001.

2. Biological and social in human development / Ed. ed. B.F. Lomova. M., 1977.

3. Blonsky P.P. Pedology: Book. for teaching and stud. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. V.A. Slastenina. M., 1999.

4. Developmental and educational psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1981.

5. Developmental and educational psychology: Reader: Textbook. aid for students avg. ped. textbook establishments / Comp. I.V. Dubrovina, A.M. Prikhozhan, V.V. Zatsepin. M., 1999.

6. Developmental and educational psychology: Texts / Comp. and comment. O. Shuare Martha. M., 1992.

7. Volovich M.B. Not to torture, but to teach: On the benefits of educational psychology. M., 1992.

8. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

9. Gabay T.V. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1995.

10. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook. allowance. Rostov n/d, 1997.

11. Ilyasov I.I. Structure of the learning process. M., 1986.

12. Kapterev P.F. Child and educational psychology. M.; Voronezh, 1999.

13. Krutetsky V.A. Fundamentals of educational psychology. M., 1972.

14. Course of general, developmental and educational psychology / Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M., 1982. Issue. 3.

15. Leites N.S. Age-related talent of schoolchildren: Proc. aid for students higher ped. textbook establishments. M., 2000.

16. Lingart I. Process and structure of human teaching. M., 1970.

17. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook. manual for higher students ped. textbook establishments: In 3 books. Book 2. Educational psychology. 2nd ed. M., 1995.

18. Obukhova L.F. Developmental psychology: Textbook. M., 1996.

19. Fundamentals of pedagogy and psychology high school/ Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1986.

20. Workshop on developmental and educational psychology: Proc. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakova. M., 1987.

21. Psychology and the teacher / Transl. from English Hugo Munsterberg. 3rd ed., rev. M., 1997.

22. Workbook of a school psychologist / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1995.

23. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: 2 vols. M., 1993-1999.

24. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. St. Petersburg, 1999.

25. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human psychology: Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: Textbook. manual for universities. M., 1995.

26. Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook. aid for students avg. specialist. textbook establishments. M., 1998.

27. Feldshtein D.I. Problems of developmental and educational psychology: Selected works. psychol. tr. M., 1995.

28. Fridman L.M., Kulagina I.Yu. Psychological reference book for teachers. M., 1991.

29. Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education: Proc. allowance. M., 1995.

30. Yakunin V.Ya. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook. allowance. M., 1998.

Practical lesson

Pedagogical psychology

Instead of introducing

What is educational psychology?

There is nothing more natural for a child than to develop, be formed, and become who he is in the process of upbringing and learning.

S. L. Rubinstein

Basic concepts: school and its functions, stages of formation of educational psychology, the subject and problems of educational psychology, the structure of educational psychology, methods of educational psychology, areas of application of educational psychology, the basis of mutual understanding between a teacher and a psychologist.

Purpose (mission) of educational psychology

The bug-eyed pike is big fish, extremely eager for minnows. Something amazing happens if pike and minnows are placed in a large aquarium with a partition in the form of sheet glass separating the predator from the small fish. The pike does not see the glass in the water and hits the obstacle hard in an attempt to get a treat.

Over and over again she accelerates and crashes into a glass partition.

Eventually the pike gives up. Apparently she concludes that the minnows are out of reach. She gives up all attempts to catch them. Then the glass can be removed, allowing the fish to swim around their mortal enemy in complete safety. The pike won't touch them. She knows what she knows: minnows are out of reach. Surprisingly, the predator will actually die of hunger, surrounded by an abundance of food.

J. Dobson "Coming Home"

This example applies not only to fish, but also to people. Early frustrations and difficulties with learning, such as an inability to read or write, can have serious consequences for children. They simply begin to see success as unattainable. Early intervention in the educational process will help boys and girls overcome the urge to give up on minnows before it is too late. The mission of educational psychology, perhaps, is to make the learning process for a child an experience of success, personal growth and development.

When starting classes in educational psychology, it is logical to ask students a question about their expectations and their need for these activities. It turns out that for most students this branch of psychology is not very interesting, primarily because they do not see themselves in the role of teachers or school psychologists. The attitude towards educational psychology as a subject is often associated with a persistent negative stereotype of school perception, which is formed as a result of the systematic suppression of students and teachers by the rigid hierarchical structure of the education system. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of teaching educational psychology is to change negative stereotypes and expand students’ ideas about their role as a teacher or educator, for example, for their own children.

School is the most important institution of socialization. It greatly influences daily life and the prospects of a growing person. The division of preschool, primary school, adolescence and youth is closely related to the emergence of universal school education.

Functions of the school. In the process of preparing children for adult status, the school is assigned the following functions:

1. Education. The transmission of knowledge and values ​​that are essential for the preservation of culture and serve as a prerequisite for the fulfillment of the roles and tasks of an adult.

2. Personality formation. Formation of ideas about oneself.

3. Development of adequate social behavior. Mastering social roles, achieving independence, transmitting values ​​and beliefs.

4. Selection and social stratification. The progress of studies affects the future of the child, since a good school education and high social status are closely interrelated. Early school leaving (or expulsion) makes it very difficult social integration young people.

One of the basic principles of education is its “cultural conformity,” that is, learning in the context of culture, focusing on its values, mastering its achievements, its reproduction, accepting sociocultural norms and including a person in their further development.

From a psychological point of view, the task of education is broader than simple transmission cultural heritage from generation to generation. Education helps people learn how to respond appropriately, or at least appropriately, to a wide range of situations. Education is, in essence, an image of culture - a process of assimilation and reproduction of culture.

Professor Bruce Tuckman begins his textbook on educational psychology (Tuckman B., 2002) with the question “Why study human behavior?”

Human behavior follows certain patterns and in many cases is predictable. When someone is yelled at, very often that someone will yell back and may feel insulted or harbor a grudge. If an idea is explained well to someone, then that someone will understand it. When a child cries, the person who cares for that child often tries to comfort him.

Many patterns of behavior are known to most people from personal experience. However, patterns are not always discovered, because it is difficult to behave in some way and at the same time analyze what is happening; In addition, most people have not learned to pay attention to the characteristics of behavior and think about its causes.

Many of the factors that help explain behavior cannot be directly observed from the outside - they operate only in the person's mind and are associated with his previous experience.

Very often, what is observed is not always an accurate reflection of what is happening in the inner world of a person. Many people smile even when they are sad, and laugh when they don’t find something funny at all. A person is not always fully aware of his behavior and its reasons. People are often unaware of their own feelings and motives, let alone the feelings and motives of other people.

What conclusion follows from the above?

Despite the fact that human behavior is subject to certain patterns, as a result of a lack of knowledge or understanding of these patterns, people can influence the behavior of other people in ways they would not like. A teacher may offend students when he really wants to encourage them, or he may not be able to help students understand something even though he is trying very hard to give them the information they need to understand it.

Question: Why is he doing this?

This is practical side of knowledge educational psychology - the science of human behavior and relationships in the process of teaching and learning. Knowledge of educational psychology can help people better understand their thoughts and actions and their consequences for themselves and for others. It also promotes more efficient work teachers.

What do teachers do?

Teachers have to help people (usually young people) learn and understand different ideas and at the same time teachers need to encourage people's self-confidence, the ability to enjoy their successes and enjoy the learning process itself.

Teachers have to encourage students to learn, arouse in them a desire to learn, and convey to students the information and necessary experience so that they can learn. And teachers have to do all of this in such a way that students' attitudes toward learning, or their feelings about learning and their ability to learn, are positive.

Knowledge of educational psychology, like knowledge in general, is also important for the development intelligence. Such knowledge enhances a person's ability to think and recognize. It improves mental discipline and develops problem-solving skills.

Areas of application of educational psychology

Psychologists specializing in educational psychology teach this subject at universities and institutes and are research assistants research institutes and laboratories, but most of them are school psychologists. According to H. Remschmidt (Remschmidt H., 1994), about 40% of outpatient visits to a psychiatrist at school age, as well as psychological and pedagogical consultations, are related to school problems. Educational psychologists can collaborate not only with schools and other educational institutions, but also with hospitals and institutions providing various types of care, where they conduct psychological research, interpret the results of individual and group tests, and provide counseling on a variety of educational problems. activities, choice of profession and personal adaptation of children.

The results of psychological and pedagogical research are used in the design of content and teaching methods, the creation of teaching aids, and the development of diagnostic tools and correction of mental development.

The study of educational psychology in itself does not provide a recipe for how to become a school psychologist or good teacher. The teacher has to face very real limitations in his work. Thus, groups of students are organized into educational classes, Moreover, often the number of students in them is relatively large, and teaching and learning are limited, so to speak, walls of the classroom. What needs to be taught is usually predetermined school curriculum or educational course, and the amount of time during which training takes place is limited to the hours allocated for school lessons, and calendar, measured in days, weeks, semesters and years spent at school.

Given all these limitations, it would be difficult to adhere to a formula for successful learning, even if one actually existed. Educational psychology is not studied to discover formulas or recipes for success, because there are none, and even if they existed, they would be very difficult to apply in the real world. Educational psychology is studied in order to learn the principles and theories of human behavior that can help teachers and educators find best way actions in different situations.

Subject and main problems of educational psychology

Pedagogical psychology(from Greek pais (paidos)- child and ago- lead, educate) is an independent branch that studies psychological problems, develops psychological foundations training and education, reveals the patterns of the process of appropriation by an individual of social experience in the conditions of specially organized training.

Like occupational, engineering, military, or clinical psychology, this field is sometimes classified as an applied branch of psychology that aims to solve practical problems. At the same time, it is a field of both fundamental and applied research and uses pedagogical institutions as a psychological laboratory.

Educational psychology is based on knowledge of general, age, social psychology, personality psychology, theoretical and practical pedagogy. The psychology of work and the psychology of influence are also closely intertwined with educational psychology.

According to P. P. Blonsky, educational psychology is a branch of applied psychology that deals with the application of conclusions theoretical psychology to the process of education and training. This is the science of the laws of change in human behavior during the learning process.

Pedagogical psychology- branch of psychology, subject which are mental phenomena that occur in the process of exchange of experience between people. These processes always have a two-way direction, since the exchange of experience occurs between the person transmitting it (teaching, educating) and the person adopting it (trained, being educated). Distinctive feature mental manifestations of the people participating in this exchange is that any act of the mental life of one person must take into account mental characteristics other: explanation - perception, understanding; assessment – ​​the mental consequence it causes (emotions, self-esteem, etc.); attitude - relationship; attitudes towards perception, memorization - selectivity; setting goals - the possibility of their implementation (abilities, current level of development, etc.) (L. A. Regush).

In modern educational psychology It is especially emphasized and studied that in the pedagogical process there is an exchange of experience, and not just its transfer from the older generation to the younger. Awareness of this circumstance led to a change in the concept pedagogical process, or rather, to a change in the psychology of its participants. This change is that it is not only the teacher who is teaching, but also the student. A teacher who has changed his view of a student may view his experience as important condition, which must be used in the learning process. The exchange of role positions between the teacher and the student has a deep psychological meaning in that the student increasingly takes responsibility for his education, while acting as a partner of the teacher in the educational dialogue. In the psychological literature, this conceptual direction of modern educational psychology is called “the student is the subject of educational activity.”

Main problems, solved by educational psychology, come down to resolving contradictions between:

The need to transfer social experience and search for methods of transfer that ensure development, self-development of a person and maximum readiness for independent adaptation in society;

A collective way of learning and an individual way of cognition and mental development;

Independence and imitation in training and education;

The development of means (including technical ones) for the transfer of experience and changes in the functions of a teacher.

Conceptual apparatus educational psychology reflects the content of the phenomena that it studies:

Psychological mechanisms of human appropriation of social experience: imitation, teaching, learning, identification;

Training, development, human education, psychological characteristics learning models that ensure development;

Psychological analysis of educational technologies;

Psychology of the student’s educational activity as a subject of educational activity: motives for learning, methods of learning, activity and responsibility, successes and failures in learning, psychological problems of the student in learning;

Psychology of interaction in the system: teacher – student – ​​class – parents (goals, attitudes, assessments, emotional climate, means and methods of communication, communication style);

Psychological characteristics of the profession - teacher: professional competence and personality of the teacher, pedagogical abilities, style of professional pedagogical activity, teacher’s individuality and creativity, personal characteristics of the teacher and their influence on the process and result of work (self-esteem, implicit theories of learning, attitudes, values, etc.) , professional self-awareness of a teacher, psychological professional problems teachers.

Methods of educational psychology

Research in educational psychology widely uses methods general psychology, but their application is modified taking into account the conditions of the pedagogical process. For example, observation as a general psychological method in educational psychology, it required transformation not only in the goals and observation program, but also in the techniques for its implementation. The classic experiment in educational psychology is practically inapplicable for a number of reasons, so it was developed natural experiment. This type of experiment allows it to be used in the context of a normal educational process, in which both the experimental influence is carried out and the naturalness of the conditions is preserved school life. This form of natural experiment has become widespread: formative experiment, a distinctive feature of which is a targeted formative influence on a student or teacher in accordance with the research hypothesis.

The pedagogical process provides great opportunities for using the method studying the products of activity, since in this process the materialization of the mental capabilities of both the student and the teacher is carried out. The objects of psychological analysis can be: student notebooks, diaries, various types of completed work (drawings, solved problems, essays, models, crafts), lesson notes, a lesson taught by the teacher, developed methodology, teaching techniques, the same student notebooks, but as a product of work teachers with them, dialogues between student and teacher, teacher and class, etc.

When organizing research, methods known in psychology are used: longitudinal, cross-sectional and combined. In the first case, the same group of students or teacher is studied for a long time, for example, students from 1st to 10th grade or a teacher during the first five years of work as a teacher, etc. Of the various types of cross-sectional method in educational psychology The comparative pedagogical method is widely used, in which the study is organized as a comparison of two or more groups that differ in the variables introduced into the experiment. For example, in one class a dialogue teaching model is used for teaching, and in another, an informational one. The results of the impact of the used training models on certain mental qualities justified in the hypothesis are compared.

Combined (complex) research is carried out using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists strive to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied. The complex method involves the study of different aspects or different levels of a mental phenomenon. For example, in a comprehensive study of children’s psychological readiness for school, social, psychological, pedagogical, and medical aspects are distinguished. Psychological readiness is defined as a complex mental formation, including motivational, emotional, volitional, communicative, intellectual, reflective, etc. potentials for the development of a child’s personality. That's why A complex approach unites various specialists (psychologists, social workers, teachers, doctors, etc.) and is often designated as interdisciplinary. The comprehensive research program is determined by the generality of the subject of research and the division of functions between individual disciplines and specialists participating in the research. It involves comparing the data obtained and summarizing them. The uniqueness of the complex method stems from the focus on establishing relationships between the studied aspects and levels of mental manifestations.

Teacher and educational psychologist: basics of mutual understanding

The basis for the development of cooperation between a teacher and a psychologist can be, on the one hand, knowledge of the history of interaction between pedagogical practice and psychology, on the other hand, the psychologist’s idea of ​​the modern psychological training of a teacher and the teacher’s knowledge of the capabilities and functions of an educational psychologist.

Historical background on the interaction of teaching practice and psychology.

Psychological knowledge in Russian society turned out to be in demand primarily in the education system. In 1906, 1909 The first congresses on educational psychology were held, and in 1910, 1913, 1916. – in experimental pedagogy. They sought answers to questions such as: what measures can psychology as a science offer to school education so that it corresponds to the mental capabilities of the child; how to prepare a teacher who knows and understands the mental characteristics of children; what methods to study a student and what to study, etc.

Throughout the subsequent years, until the 90s. last century, cooperation between teachers and psychologists developed in the following directions:

Creation of methodology, methods and techniques for understanding the developing person and interacting with him.

The most significant in the development of the theoretical foundations of psychological research were the works of M. S. Bernstein (1930), A. P. Boltunov (1927), L. S. Vygotsky (1930), S. G. Gellerstein (1928), A. F. Lazursky (1924), A. P. Nechaev (1918), S. L. Rubinstein (1941), etc.

Methodological discussions and theoretical justification for one or another way of researching schoolchildren, as a rule, were accompanied by the development and testing of specific methods and techniques. As an example, here is a short list of them:

Arkhangelsky S. Tests as a method of accounting and research of the pedagogical process. – 1927.

Basov M. Ya. Methodology of psychological observations of children. – 1924, 1926.

Blonsky P. P. How to study a schoolchild. – 1926.

Boltunov A.P. Pedagogical experiment in a mass school. – 1929.

Boltunov A.P. Questionnaire method in pedagogical and psychological research. – 1916.

Bochkareva T. I., Raev A. I. Methods of psychological study of a schoolchild’s personality. – 1968.

Lazursky A.F. About a natural experiment. – 1911.

Lazursky A.F. Personality research program. – 1915.

Lyublinskaya A. A. Measuring scale of intelligence for class tests of schoolchildren. – 1927.

Rossolimo G.I. Plan for the study of the child’s soul. – 1922.

Schubert A. M. How to study a child. – 1924.

In the 50s–60s. XX century There is an active development of a formative experiment, various modifications of which were included directly in the learning process. Leading psychological groups organize research in schools, testing various theoretical concepts:

The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina);

Theory of developmental learning (V.V. Davydov, V.L. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin);

The theory of programmed learning (V.P. Bespalko, A.I. Raev);

Theory of learning algorithms (L. N. Landa);

Communicative theories of learning (A. A. Stepanov, L. P. Pressman, etc.).

In the 80–90s. XX century Psychological methods of not only studying and influencing the student as an object of learning are increasingly being included in school practice, but the practical implementation of the approach to the student as a subject of teaching and learning begins. This concept of learning was formulated back in the 40s, in particular, in the theory of personality development by S. L. Rubinstein.

Practical work of pedologists and psychologists in educational institutions

Psychological practice in educational institutions since the beginning of the 19th century. and until 1936, that is, until the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of July 4, 1936 “On pedological perversions in the system of People's Commissariat for Education,” was carried out by pedologists. Dozens of articles and dissertations are devoted to the analysis of their activities, for example: L. S. Vygotsky“Pedology of school age” – 1928; N. A. Danilicheva“Essays on the history of school psychodiagnostics” – 2004.

For decades after this ruling, psychologists were present in schools indirectly through interaction with institutions that shaped policy in school education and influenced its content and methods. The functions that pedology performed were partially taken over, on the one hand, by developmental psychology and educational psychology, on the other, in the pedagogical community there was a tendency to assign this function to the teacher.

However, in the curricula of that time, psychology was represented by a set of disciplines such as general, developmental and educational psychology. Moreover, if general psychology could last up to 54 hours, then the course of developmental and educational psychology was usually no more than 18 hours.

In the 1960s–1980s. the practice of interaction between psychologists and schools has developed, such as participation in the scientific supervision of school research or creative projects. In fact, psychologists of those years performed one of the functions that is now officially designated as methodological. In essence, the psychologist was the organizer research work teaching staff or individual groups whose goal was to test new methodological tools or the concept of the school as a whole.

Educational work of psychologists, aimed at improving the psychological culture of participants in the educational process.

In the 30s–50s. XX century leading psychologists (B. G. Ananyev, Yu. A. Samarin, A. P. Boltunov, etc.), wanting to maintain connections with school practice, published a series of books - practical guides for teachers and parents. Already in those early years, these psychologists created a direction of work for practical psychologists, which began to develop especially intensively in the last decade:

Ananyev B. G. Psychology of pedagogical assessment. – 1935.

Ananyev B.G. Cultivating observation skills in schoolchildren. – 1940.

Ananyev B.G. Cultivating students' attention. Conversations with teachers about psychology. – 1940.

Ananyev B. G. Education of the memory of a schoolchild. – 1940.

Boltunov A.P. Mental development and education of schoolchildren. – 1940.

Samarin Yu. A. Nurturing the schoolchild’s imagination. – 1947. Teachers at pedagogical universities in the 1950s–1980s, as a rule, conducted psychological lectures or permanent seminars in schools or teaching rooms in accordance with the topics that were relevant to the school.

Psychological justification and support of pedagogical innovations is also one of the traditional areas of work of psychologists in interaction with teachers. These are psychological studies of all innovation processes that occur in school practice.

Participation of psychologists directly in the development of new didactic tools and educational technologies. For example, the development of programmed learning technology was carried out with the participation of psychological schools A. I. Raeva, V. P. Bespalko and others; communicative technologies of education, including educational television - with the participation of A. A. Stepanov, L. P. Pressman and others; technologies of problem-based learning - A. M. Matyushkina, T. V. Kudryavtseva, etc.; algorithmization of learning L. N. Landa et al.

Psychologists not only gave reasons for this or that educational technology, but, as a rule, participated in the development of these technologies and their implementation in practice. For example, employees of the educational television laboratory at the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A.I. Herzen, headed by prof. A. A. Stepanov, in the 1970s–1980s. created more than 700 educational television programs on 7 academic subjects, which were broadcast freely on the educational television channel and were taken in lessons in schools. Laboratory of content and teaching methods in primary school, headed by prof. A. A. Lyublinskaya (Russian State Pedagogical University named after Herzen), in the 1970s. became the basis for reform primary education and contributed to the emergence of a new approach to teaching mathematics and the Russian language, as well as the appearance of corresponding textbooks for primary schools.

Psychological training of teachers and pedagogical education of psychologists

In the early 1990s, when the system of higher pedagogical education began to be restructured, the concept, content and technologies of teacher psychological training underwent significant changes. One of the achievements of the perestroika that took place is that psychology ceases to be one of information disciplines and increasingly becomes personality-oriented, ensuring personal interaction between the psychology teacher and the student.

The concept of psychological training developed at one time and the professional educational standards corresponding to it created objective opportunities for training a psychologically competent teacher.

The development of applied psychology, including educational psychology, could not but influence both the content of the relevant disciplines and the methods of teaching psychology at universities. And the fact that many university psychology departments, simultaneously with basic psychological training, began to train school psychologists, certainly had a positive impact both on the professional level of work of psychology teachers and on the transfer of knowledge from various branches of psychology into teacher training. Therefore, in addition to traditional information (translation) methods of transferring psychological knowledge, psychological trainings, workshops, seminars conducted in various psychological techniques.

Among the indisputable achievements is the fact that the psychological education of teachers and the psychology of the modern teacher have become the subject of study and generalization of a number of serious studies, the results of which should contribute to the further improvement of various aspects of psychological training (Stein-mets A. E., Zeer E. F., Ivanova S. P., Sukhobskaya G. S., Rogov E. I., Rean A. A., Kuzmina N. V., etc.).

However, an educational psychologist must have a fairly differentiated idea of ​​what kind of psychological training a particular teacher has. And it varies depending on the educational program that the teacher has mastered. If he studied in a specialty, that is, he entered from the 1st year as a teacher, then his training includes such disciplines as general psychology, developmental and educational psychology, experimental psychology, special psychology. In addition, the fact that the student has a pedagogical orientation, which largely determines the attitude towards obtaining an education, cannot but influence the preparation.

If a teacher received a diploma after completing a bachelor's degree in a field of pedagogical education (philology, music, natural science, physics, etc.), then it must be borne in mind that the pedagogical orientation was formed only within a year. His basic training does not differ significantly from the training of a specialist, but the motivation and focus on pedagogical work may lose compared to students who have completed a specialty degree. If a teacher received a bachelor’s degree in science during his university training, then his psychological education will be no more than 40 hours.

However, there are problems without solving which it is difficult to move forward. One of these problems is assessing the quality of psychological training in various models of education (single-level and multi-level). It is for teacher training that this problem is relevant, since the development of a professional’s personality proceeds in fundamentally different ways, as noted above. Depending on the results of such evaluation studies, it is necessary to move on to adjusting the content of psychology curricula for teacher training.

Remains actual problem“work” of psychological knowledge to solve professional pedagogical problems, that is, the problem of the teacher’s psychological competence. The introduced changes in themselves do not contribute to solving this problem. Probably, for psychological knowledge, which undoubtedly has specifics in comparison with other types of humanitarian knowledge, methods of knowledge transfer become essential. It is well known that knowledge transmitted only at the level of translation of concepts does not work in teachers’ practice. Currently, alternative technologies are being actively introduced into university practice (for example, dialogic learning, active learning training, etc.).

For mutual understanding between the teacher and the psychologist, the teacher’s ideas about what kind of training the psychologist has received are also important. If you analyze the curricula for training bachelors of psychology or a specialist “educator-psychologist”, you will notice certain emphases in them. The future psychologist is preparing to become a diagnostician, consultant on problems of relationships, emotional experiences, and researcher. From our point of view, in the training of a psychologist, there is clearly a lack of attention to the problems of educational activity, the acquisition of knowledge and methods of teaching, and, in fact, to the main thing – the learning process. The basis for this point of view is an appeal to the curriculum. The activity-oriented course is traditional educational psychology. The program of this course for psychologists should be fundamentally different than for other specialists, including teachers. I know " psychological support educational process”, the issues of actually helping the student in learning and the organization of teaching by the teacher are also not given enough attention.

So the analysis historical development practical psychology in the education system and assessment of the teacher’s ideas about the psychologist and the psychologist about the teacher allow us to conclude:

At all times, the development of psychological practice is determined by the development of the theory and methodology of psychology as a science;

Nominatively, the tasks of practical psychology in education sound the same in the 20s. XX century and in the 21st century, but the possibilities for solving them and the participants in the pedagogical process themselves have changed significantly;

The history of psychological practice in education teaches that orthodox decisions (administrative, political) interfere with the progressive, evolutionary development of psychological practice and lead to a lag behind possible rates and levels;

Psychological practice in education has not yet been sufficiently comprehended, which is important to do now in order to make the most of its positive experience;

Psychologists of the last century actively worked on the problems of the educational process and educational activities of schoolchildren;

Successful interaction between a psychologist and a teacher, along with various factors, is determined by the psychologist’s knowledge of the teacher’s level of psychological preparation, and vice versa: by the teacher’s knowledge of the psychologist’s readiness to solve the problems of schoolchildren’s educational activities.

Main

1. Grigorovich L. A. Pedagogical psychology. M., 2003.

2. Demidova I. F. Pedagogical psychology: Tutorial. M., 2007.

3. Zimnyaya I.A. Educational psychology: Textbook for universities. M., 2001.

4. Karandashev V. N. Educational psychology: Reader. St. Petersburg, 2006.

5. Lefrancois G. Applied educational psychology. St. Petersburg, 2003.

6. Orlov A. B. Psychology of personality and human essence: paradigms, projections, practices. M., 1995.

7. Pedagogical psychology/ Ed. A. I. Raeva. St. Petersburg, 1999.

8. Raev A. I. Selected works on educational psychology / Comp. G. I. Vergeles. St. Petersburg, 2006.

9. Sarychev S. V., Logvinov I. N. Pedagogical psychology. Short course. St. Petersburg, 2006.

10. Takman B. Pedagogical psychology. M., 2002.

Additional

1. Aismontas B. B. Educational psychology: schemes and tests. M., 2004.

2. Educators and children: sources of growth / Ed. A. V. Petrovsky. M., 1994.

3. Vygotsky L. S. Educational psychology / Ed. V.V. Davydova. M., 1996.

4. Mandel B. Educational psychology: answers to difficult questions. Rostov n/d, 2007.

5. Peters V. A. Educational psychology in questions and answers: Textbook. M., 2006.

6. Remschmidt H. Adolescence and adolescence: Problems of personality development. M., 1994.

7. Rogers K. Questions that I would ask myself if I were a teacher // Family and School, 1987, No. 10, p. 22–24.

8. Rogers K., Freyberg J. Freedom to learn / Ed. A. B. Orlova. M., 2002.

9. Talyzina N. F. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1998.

10. Theories of teaching: Reader / Ed. N. F. Talyzina, A. I. Volodarskaya. M., 1998.

11. Yakimanskaya I. S. Subject and methods of modern pedagogical psychology // Questions of psychology. 2006. No. 6.

Internet resources

Aismontas B. B. Pedagogical psychology. Electronic textbook. http://ido.edu.ru/psychology/pedagogical_psychology/metod.html

Topic 1. Subject and tasks of educational psychology. http://komunna.info/psychology/pedagogical_psychology/1.html

Questions and tasks for independent work

1. Study of attitude towards the subject (self-analysis, internal work)

To start working with the negative stereotype of perception of educational psychology and make it easier to study this subject, I suggest you spend a few minutes discussing with your neighbor your attitude towards this subject.

1. Write down in your notebook the answer to the question: What do I think about educational psychology? How do I feel about it, what feelings does this item make me feel?

2. Make a drawing that would reflect your attitude towards school on the first page of the notebook in which you will take notes on lectures.

3. Discuss with your neighbor: What does he see? How does he perceive this? What did you have in mind when you drew?

4. Look at what you wrote down, did you manage to separate and express separately from each other: thoughts, attitudes, feelings?

2. Creative work“If I became a teacher?” The founder of humanistic psychology, C. Rogers, in one of his lectures tried to imagine what questions he would ask himself if he suddenly became a teacher.

1. What does it mean to be a child who learns something on his own “not according to the program”?

2. Would I dare not to close myself off from my students, but to be with them as I am - a person who often does not know something, hesitates, makes mistakes, and seeks? Would I be able to take such a risk and what would it give?

3. What interests my students?

5. How to ensure the supply of materials for my students that would be interesting, exciting, would meet different inclinations and abilities, and could provide a free choice of what I want to learn right now and specifically for me?

6. Do I have the courage and patience to help spark creative ideas in my students? Do I have the patience and humanity to endure the annoying behavior, resistance, and quirks of those who are most likely to have creative thoughts? Can I “give space” to a creative person?

7. Would I be able to provide my students with not only development in the sphere of cognition, but also feelings? Think about for whom you are a real or spontaneous teacher. Answer these questions in writing for your “student.”

3. Write a short essay on the following topic.

1. What are the main problems in the psychology of teaching and upbringing that made it possible to distinguish educational psychology as a separate science?

2. At what stage of development is educational psychology now? What problems are most pressing for her?

3. What is the relationship between educational psychology and other sciences? What are the distinctive features of educational psychology?

4. What is the specificity of the methods of educational psychology?

5. What are the main areas of application of educational psychology? What is psychological practice in education?

4. List 5 problems that you, as a teacher, could address to a school psychologist, considering that this is the competence of this specialist.

Psychological characteristics of the educational environment

Psychological safety of the educational environment

It is a good environment that is one of the primary factors of self-actualization and health for the average organism. Having provided the body with the opportunity for self-actualization, it, like a good mentor, retreats into the shadows to allow it to make its own choices in accordance with your own desires and requirements (reserving the right to ensure that he takes into account the wishes and requirements of other people).

A. Maslow

1.1.1. Basic approaches to revealing the concept “ educational environment", typology and structure of the educational environment

Basic concepts: educational environment, types of educational environment, psychological safety of the educational environment, K-concept of psychological safety of the educational environment. danger, risk, threat, conditions of psychological safety of the educational environment, psychologically safe interpersonal relationships, psychological violence, psychological prevention, psychological counseling, psychological rehabilitation, socio-psychological training.

Educational environment- a concept that has been widely used in the last decade in discussing and studying educational problems. In modern educational psychology, the conditions in which training and education are carried out are defined as the educational environment.

The phenomenon of the educational environment is considered from positions related to the modern understanding of education as a sphere of social life, and the environment as a factor in education. In the most general sense, “environment” is understood as the environment, as a set of conditions and influences surrounding a person. Ideas for the development of the educational environment are thoroughly developed both in the studies of domestic psychologists and teachers (G. A. Kovalev, V. P. Lebedeva, A. B. Orlov, V. I. Panov, A. V. Petrovsky, V. V. Rubtsov, I. M. Ulanovskaya, B. D. Elkonin, V. A. Yasvin, etc.), and in foreign psychology (A. Bandura, K. Levin, K. Rogers, etc.).

The educational environment can be considered as a subsystem of the sociocultural environment, as a set of historically developed factors, circumstances, situations, and as the integrity of specially organized pedagogical conditions for the development of the student’s personality. IN modern research The educational environment is considered as a category that characterizes the development of the child, which determines its target and functional purpose.

End of free trial.

Pages:
,

The subject of educational psychology is the development of cognitive activity in conditions of systematic learning. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:

• interrelations of external and internal factors that determine differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems;
• the relationship between the motivational and intellectual plans of learning;
• opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child;
• psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc.

The psychology of learning studies, first of all, the process of assimilation of knowledge and skills and abilities adequate to them. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence. A special task of educational psychology is the development of methods that make it possible to diagnose the level and quality of learning.
Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of Russian psychology, have shown that process of assimilation - it is a person performing certain actions oractivities . Knowledge is always acquired as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the acquired actions are brought to certain indicators for some of their characteristics.

Learning is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process. The actions that make up the activity of teaching are assimilated according to the same laws as any others (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract).
Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying the patterns of formation and functioning of cognitive activity in the conditions of the existing educational system. In particular, a wealth of experimental material has been accumulated, revealing typical shortcomings in the acquisition of various scientific concepts by secondary school students. The role of students’ life experience and the nature of the educational material presented in the acquisition of knowledge has also been studied.
In the 70s XX century in educational psychology, they increasingly began to use another path: the study of the patterns of development of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in the conditions of specially organized training. Research has shown that managing the learning process significantly changes the course of acquiring knowledge and skills. The conducted research is important for finding the most optimal ways of learning and identifying conditions for effective mental development of students.
Pedagogical psychology also studies the dependence of the acquisition of knowledge, abilities, skills, and the formation of various personality traits on the individual characteristics of students (Nurminsky I.I. et al., 1991; abstract).

Basic concepts of learning psychology

Psychology of learning is a scientific field that studies the psychological patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, psychological mechanisms of learning and educational activities, age-related changes, caused by the learning process.

Education- the process of purposeful transfer of socio-historical experience to students, organization of the formation of their knowledge, skills and abilities.

Teaching- a specific form of individual activity, manifested in the regulation of one’s own activities and aimed at the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities, as well as the development of the student himself.

Learning- This is the result of learning, characterized by the fact that the student acquires psychological qualities and properties.

Educational activities- human activity aimed at mastering methods of objective and cognitive actions, generalized in the form of theoretical knowledge.

Development- changes in the quantitative and qualitative properties of a person: his worldview, self-awareness, attitudes towards reality, character, abilities, mental processes, accumulation of experience.

Distinction between the concepts of “training”, “teaching”, “teaching” According to the degree of organization of the process:

Training - An organized process, systematically and consciously managed

Teaching - Both organized and unorganized process

Learning can be organized, or it can be spontaneous.

According to the awareness of the process:

Learning - Conscious process

Teaching - Conscious process

Learning - Can be conscious, or can be carried out at an unconscious level.

When the child is ready to carry out the process:

Training - Readiness A child begins to learn at the age of 4-5 years

Learning - Readiness for independent learning appears at 7-8 years of age

Learning - Readiness to learn - from infancy according to the type of imprinting, conditioned reflex.

Training is an active, purposeful process of transferring to the student the sociocultural experience of previous generations and organizing the development of this experience, as well as the opportunity and willingness to apply this experience in various situations.

Structure.

Traditionally, educational psychology is considered in three sections: psychology of learning, psychology of education, teacher psychology.

Education is a purposeful influence on a person in order to form in him certain value orientations, principles of behavior, assessment systems, attitudes towards himself, towards other people, towards work, society, towards the world.

1. Subject of educational psychology - development of cognitive activity in conditions of systematic training.

The psychology of learning studies, first of all, the process of assimilation of knowledge and skills and abilities adequate to them. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence.

Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of Russian psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities.

Learning is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process.

2. Subject of educational psychology - development of personality in the conditions of purposeful organization of the activities of the child and the children's team. Educational psychology studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of worldviews, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

3. Subject of teacher psychology - psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality characteristics that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

· determination of the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes;

· studying the emotional stability of a teacher;

· identification of positive features of the individual communication style of teacher and student and a number of others.

167. Connection of educational psychology with other sciences.

Developmental psychology studies the development of the human psyche in ontogenesis, its features at different stages, and educational psychology studies the patterns of human development in conditions of training and education.

Educational psychology is related to other sciences:

Firstly, because it is a branch of general psychological knowledge

Secondly, because the educational process, in its goals and content, is the transfer of sociocultural experience, which contains the most diverse knowledge in symbolic and linguistic form.

Thirdly, because the object of study is the person who knows and learns this knowledge.

168. Tasks and problems of educational psychology.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology:

1. The problem of the relationship between training and development. One of the most important problems of educational psychology is the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development. According to modern science, it is almost impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education and, therefore, what is given genetically cannot be re-educated. On the other hand, training and education in themselves have enormous potential in terms of the mental development of the individual, even if they do not affect the genotype itself and do not affect organic processes. In Russian psychology, this problem was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in the early 30s. XX century He substantiated the leading role of training in development, noting that training should go ahead of development and be a source of new development.

2. The problem of the relationship between training and education. Another problem, which is closely related to the previous one, is the problem of the relationship between training and education. The processes of teaching and upbringing in their unity represent a pedagogical process, the purpose of which is education, development and formation of personality. In essence, both occur through the interaction of teacher and student, educator and pupil, adult and child, located in certain living conditions, in a certain environment.

3. The problem of taking into account sensitive periods of development in education. Sensitive periods in psychology are understood as periods of ontogenetic development, when a developing organism is especially sensitive to certain types of influences from the surrounding reality. For example, at the age of about five years, children are especially sensitive to the development of phenomenal hearing, and after this period this sensitivity decreases somewhat. Sensitive periods are periods of optimal development of certain aspects of the psyche: processes and properties. Starting learning something too early can have an adverse effect on mental development, just as starting it too late can be ineffective. The difficulty of the problem under consideration is that all sensitive periods of development of the child’s intellect and personality, their beginning, duration and completion are not known.

4. The problem of children's giftedness. General talent refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children are “children who display one or another special or general giftedness.”

5. The problem of children's readiness for school. The readiness of children to study at school is “a set of morphological and psychological characteristics of a child of senior preschool age, ensuring a successful transition to systematic, organized schooling.”

In the pedagogical and psychological literature, along with the term “readiness for schooling,” the term “school maturity” is used. These terms are almost synonymous, although the second one more reflects the psychophysiological aspect of organic maturation.

Solving the above and other psychological and pedagogical problems requires a teacher or educator to have high professional qualifications, a significant part of which is psychological knowledge, skills and abilities.

The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are:

· disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

· determination of mechanisms and patterns of student’s mastering sociocultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the student’s individual consciousness and use in various situations;

· determining the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.);

· determination of the features of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

· studying the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity;

· determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific and theoretical thinking;

· determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for assimilation of knowledge, formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;

· development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system, etc.

Age is characterized not by the relationship of individual mental functions, but by those specific tasks of mastering aspects of reality that are accepted and solved by a person, as well as age-related neoplasms.

Based on this, V.V. Davydov formulated a series principles of developmental psychology

Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent ages.

Each age has its own development reserves, which can be mobilized during the development of a child’s specially organized activity in relation to the surrounding reality and to his activities.

The characteristics of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc.

All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance when creating a psychological theory of assimilation of sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, based on them, the following principles of educational psychology can be identified (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):

Education is based on data from developmental psychology about age reserves, focusing on the “tomorrow” of development.

Education is organized taking into account the existing individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.

Learning cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the practice of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student’s personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

169. The influence of basic psychological theories on the formation and development of educational psychology.

Educational psychology develops in the general context of scientific ideas about man, which were recorded in the main psychological movements (theories) that have had and continue to have a great influence on pedagogical thought in each specific historical period. This is due to the fact that the learning process has always acted as a natural research “testing ground” for psychological theories. Let us take a closer look at the psychological movements and theories that could influence the understanding of the pedagogical process.

Associative psychology(starting from the middle of the 18th century - D. Hartley and until the end of the 19th century - W. Wundt), in the depths of which the types and mechanisms of associations were defined as connections between mental processes and associations as the basis of the psyche. Using the material from the study of associations, the features of memory and learning were studied. Here we note that the foundations of the associative interpretation of the psyche were laid by Aristotle (384-322 BC), who is credited with introducing the concept of “association”, its types, distinguishing two types of reason (nous) into theoretical and practical, definitions feelings of satisfaction as a learning factor.

Empirical data from experiments G. Ebbinghaus (1885) on the study of the process of forgetting and the forgetting curve he obtained, the nature of which is taken into account by all subsequent researchers of memory, development of skills, organization of exercises.

Pragmatic functional psychology W. James (late 19th - early 20th century) and J. Dewey (practically the entire first half of our century) with an emphasis on adaptive reactions, adaptation to the environment, body activity, and skill development.

Trial and error theory E. Thorndike (late 19th - early 20th centuries), who formulated the basic laws of learning - the laws of exercise, effect and readiness; who described the learning curve and achievement tests based on these data (1904).

Behaviorism J. Watson (1912 -1920) And neobehaviorism E. Tolman, K. Hull, A. Ghazri and B. Skinner (first half of our century). V. Skinner already in the middle of this century developed the concept of operant behavior and the practice of programmed training. The merit of the works of E. Thorndike, orthodox behaviorism of J. Watson and the entire neo-behaviourist movement that preceded behaviorism is the development of a holistic concept of learning, including its patterns, facts, mechanisms.

Research by F. Galton (late 19th century) in the field measurements of sensorimotor functions, which laid the foundation for testing (F. Galton was the first to use questionnaires and rating scales); use of mathematical statistics; “mental tests” by J. Cattell, which, as A. Anastasi notes, were considered a typical research method of that time. Intellectual tests by A. Wiene and T. Simon (1904-1911) with a variation of individual and group testing, in which the intellectual development coefficient was first used as the ratio of mental age to actual age (L. Theremin in America in 1916). It is significant that F. Galton began his first (1884) measurements in the education system, J. Cattell (1890) tested college students in America, the first Binet-Simon scale (1905) was created in France on the initiative of the Ministry of Education. This indicates a fairly long close connection psychological research and education.

Psychoanalysis 3. Freud, A. Adler, K. Jung, E. Fromm, E. Erikson (from the end of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century), developing the categories of the unconscious, psychological defense, complexes, stages of development of the “I”, freedom , extroversion-introversion. (The latter finds the widest application and distribution in many pedagogical studies thanks to the G. Eysenck test.)

Gestalt psychology(M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Koffka - early XIX c.), the concept of a dynamic system of behavior or the field theory of K. Lewin, genetic epistemology or the concept of staged development of intelligence by J. Piaget, which contributed to the formation of the concepts of insight, motivation, stages of intellectual development, internalization (which was also developed by French psychologists of the sociological direction A Vallon, P. Janet).

Operational concept J. Piaget, starting from the 20s of our century, has become one of the main world theories of the development of intelligence and thinking. In the context of this concept, the concepts of socialization, centering-decentration, specificity of adaptation, reversibility of actions, stage of intellectual development are developed. It should be noted that in the science of the 20th century. J. Piaget entered primarily as one of the most prominent representatives of the “synthetic approach to the study of the psyche.”

Cognitive psychology 60-80s of our century G.U. Neisser, M. Broadbent, D. Norman, J. Bruner and others, who focused on knowledge, awareness, organization of semantic memory, forecasting, reception and processing of information, reading and comprehension processes, cognitive styles.

Humanistic psychology of the 60-90s of our century by A. Maslow, K. Rogers, which put forward the concept of “client-centered” therapy, the category of self-actualization, the pyramid (hierarchy) of human needs, facilitation (relief and activation), which formed a student-centered humanistic approach to training.

The development of educational psychology was greatly influenced by the works of domestic thinkers, teachers, naturalists - I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, K.D. Ushinsky, A.F. Lazursky, P.F. Lesgaft, L.S. Vygotsky , P.P. Blonsky, etc. The basis of almost all domestic pedagogical concepts was educational anthropology K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870). It affirmed the educational nature of learning, the active (active) nature of man. K.D. Ushinsky is responsible for the development of content categories and teaching methods.

Cultural-historical theory L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) - the theory of the development of the psyche, conceptual thinking, speech, the connection between learning and development, where the first should anticipate and lead the second, the concept of levels of development, “zones of proximal development" and many other fundamental provisions to varying degrees completeness formed the basis of psychological and pedagogical concepts of recent decades. Concept of activity of M.Ya. Basov, theory of activity by A.N. Leontyev, general methodological development of the category of activity itself (especially in terms of subjectivity) S.L. Rubinstein, a general integrative approach to the psyche, determining the specifics of its development during adulthood, identifying a special age period - student age B.G. Ananyev and others had an undoubted influence on the psychological and pedagogical understanding of the educational process and the development of educational psychology.

Formed in Russian psychology in the middle of the current century theories, concepts, interpretation of teaching, educational activities(D.N. Bogoyavlensky, G.S. Kostyuk, N.A. Menchinskaya, P.A. Shevarev, Z.I. Kalmykova, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, D.B. Elkonin, V V. Davydov, A. K. Markova, L. I. Aidarova, L. V. Zankov, L. N. Landa, G. G. Granik, A. A. Lyublinskaya, I. V. Kuzmina, etc.) made an invaluable contribution not only to the understanding of teaching practice, but also to educational psychology as a science developed both in our country and in other countries (I. Lingart, J. Lompscher, etc.).

The development of educational psychology was greatly influenced by the identification specific mechanisms for mastering educational material students (S.L. Rubinshtein, E.N. Kabanova-Meller, L.B. Itelson); memory research(P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov, V.Ya. Lyaudis), thinking (F.N. Shemyakin, A.M. Matyushkin, V.N. Pushkin, L.L. Gurova), perception (V.P. Zinchenko, Yu.B. Gippenreiter), child development and in particular, speech development(M. I. Lisina, L. A. Wenger, A. G. Ruzskaya, F. A. Sokhin, T. N. Ushakova), personality development(B.G. Ananyev, L.I. Bozhovich, M.S. Neimark, V.S. Mukhina), verbal communication and speech training(V.A. Artemov, N.I. Zhinkin, A.A. Leontyev, V.A. Kan-Kalik); definition of stages(eras, epochs, phases, periods) age development(P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, B.G. Ananyev, A.V. Petrovsky), mental characteristics schoolchildren's activities and their mental talent (A.A. Bodalev, N.S. Leites, N.D. Levitov, V.A. Krutetsky). Great importance for educational psychology had work on psychology of adult learning(Yu.N. Kulyutkin, L.N. Lesokhina), etc.

170. Research methods in educational psychology: observation, experiment, formative and ascertaining experiment.

Observation- basic, most common in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) empirical method study of man. Observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study.

Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, surveillance maps, etc.).

The main features of the observation method are:

· direct connection between the observer and the observed object;

· bias (emotional coloring) of observation;

· difficulty (sometimes impossibility) of repeated observation.

There are several types of observations.

Depending on the position of the observer, open and hidden observation are distinguished. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher’s activities are perceived visually. Covert observation presupposes the fact of covert monitoring of the actions of the subject.

Further, continuous and selective observation are distinguished. The first covers processes in their entirety: from their beginning to the end, to completion. The second is a selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teacher and student work in a lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in teacher-student relationships, the researcher waits, as it were, observing these events from the side, in order to then describe in detail the reasons for their occurrence, the behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. teacher and student.

Conversation - a widespread empirical method in educational psychology of obtaining information (information) about a student in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. Suffice it to say Piaget. In conversations, dialogues, discussions, the attitudes of students, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. Researchers of all times in conversations received information that was impossible to obtain in any other way. Psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by the researcher’s purposeful attempts to penetrate into the inner world of the subjects of the educational process, to identify the reasons for certain actions. Information about the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attitude to the problems of interest to the researcher is also obtained through conversations. But conversations are a very complex and not always reliable method. Therefore, it is used most often as an additional one - to obtain the necessary clarifications and clarifications. To increase the reliability of the results of the conversation and remove the inevitable shade of subjectivity, special measures should be used. These include:

· the presence of a clear conversation plan, thought out taking into account the characteristics of the student’s personality and steadily implemented;

· discussion of issues of interest to the researcher from various angles and connections of school life;

· varying questions, posing them in a form convenient for the interlocutor;

· ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in questions and answers.

Questioning - a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that the person answers the questions asked to him frankly. However, as recent research into the effectiveness of this method shows, these expectations are met by approximately half. Teachers and psychologists were attracted to the survey by the possibility of quick mass surveys of students, teachers, and parents, the low cost of the methodology, and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

Nowadays, various types of questionnaires are widely used in psychological and pedagogical research:

open, requiring independent construction of an answer;

closed, in which students have to choose one of ready-made answers;

personal, requiring the subject's surname to be indicated;

anonymous, doing without it, etc.

When drawing up the questionnaire, the following are taken into account: the content of the questions; form of questions - open or closed; wording of questions (clarity, without prompting answers, etc.);

number and order of questions.

Questioning can be oral, written, individual, or group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

Test method. Test (English test - sample, test, check) - in psychology - a test fixed in time, designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences. The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is made.

Testing differs from other methods of examination: accuracy; simplicity; accessibility; opportunity

automation.

If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we will point out, first of all, the use of achievement tests. Skill tests such as reading, writing, protozoa are widely used. arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of training - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge and skills in all academic subjects.

Experiment - one of the main (along with observation) methods scientific knowledge at all, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher. A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses in cause-and-effect relationships, not limiting yourself to stating the relationship between variables. There are traditional and factorial experimental designs. With traditional planning, only one independent variable changes, with factorial planning - several. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other.

The experimental procedure consists of purposefully creating or selecting conditions that ensure reliable isolation of the factor being studied, and recording changes associated with its influence. Most often, in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: an experimental group, in which the factor being studied is included, and a control group, in which it is absent. The experimenter, at his own discretion, can modify the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change. For example, by changing the conditions for memorizing this or that educational material, it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most durable and accurate.

Psychological and pedagogical experiments differ:

According to the form of conduct, there are two main types of experiments - laboratory and natural.

A laboratory experiment is carried out in specially organized artificial conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. A laboratory experiment allows, with the help of recording instruments, to accurately measure the time of occurrence of mental processes, for example, the speed of a person’s reaction, the speed of formation of educational and work skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators under strictly defined conditions.

Natural experiment. This method was first proposed in 1910 by A.F. Lazursky at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions within the framework of activities familiar to the subjects, for example, training sessions or games. Often the situation created by the experimenter may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; in this case, a positive factor for the study is the complete naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing teaching methods, school equipment, daily routine, etc.), an experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves become participants in its creation. Such research requires particularly careful planning and preparation.

Based on the number of variables studied, univariate and multivariate experiments are distinguished.

A univariate experiment involves identifying one dependent and one independent variable in the study. It is most often implemented in a laboratory experiment.

Multidimensional experiment. A natural experiment affirms the idea of ​​studying phenomena not in isolation, but in their interconnection and interdependence. Therefore, a multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires the simultaneous measurement of many related characteristics, the independence of which is not known in advance. Analysis of connections between many studied characteristics, identification of the structure of these connections, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main goal of a multidimensional experiment.

results experimental research often do not represent an identified pattern, a stable dependence, but a series of more or less fully recorded empirical facts.

ANALYSIS OF ACTIVITY PRODUCTS- a method of indirect empirical study of a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of the material and ideal products of his activity. This method is widely used in pedagogical practice in the form of analysis of student essays, notes, etc. However, during scientific research The method of analyzing activity products presupposes a specific goal, hypothesis and methods of analyzing each specific product.

171. Factors, driving forces and patterns of personality development.

Personal development is the process of accumulation of quantitative and qualitative changes in the human body, social, anatomical-physiological, psychological plan

Factors:

Biological - heredity (uncontrollable) - the transmission to children from parents of certain qualities and characteristics (color of eyes, hair, skin, diseases, physiological parameters).

Mental abilities are not inherited, but inclinations are inherited, which, due to prevailing conditions, develop into abilities

Social - social environment (semi-managed) - reality and conditions in which the child grows up; social, material, economic environment, social system, which create conditions for the development of the child; small social environment - relatives, classmates, who directly influence the formation of the child’s personality

Education factor -(fully controlled, leading, can have positive and negative results depending on the content of the goals, methods, means used in the family, school) - a purposeful, consciously carried out pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating the various activities of the emerging personality to master social experience, knowledge, practical skills, social and spiritual relationships, methods of creative activity.

A person becomes an individual in the process of development, in the social system, through thoughtful upbringing. Personality is determined by the measure of society’s appropriation of experience and the measure of return to society of its feasible contribution to material and spiritual values. A person must demonstrate in practice, reveal his inner properties, inherent in nature and formed in him by life and upbringing.

Personal development is a spontaneous, uncontrolled, spontaneous process. Development occurs regardless of living conditions. The driving force of development is the struggle of contradictions - opposing principles colliding in conflict. Internal and external, general (universal) contradictions driving the development of masses and individuals.

They arise under the influence of people’s needs, ranging from simple material to spiritual, and their satisfaction. The inner self arose as a result of “disagreement with oneself,” expressing the individual’s motives. Externally - stimulated by forces from outside, a person’s relationship with people, society, nature.

See question 131 (developmental psychology)

172. Different points of view on the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development.

See question 127, + 131 (developmental psychology) - there is about Davydov’s developmental education system

The problem of the relationship between training and development has been and remains one of the core problems of psychology and pedagogy. Historically, there have been different points of view on this issue.

One of them was presented by the American scientist E. Thorndike and consisted of recognition of learning and development as identical processes. Each step of learning was considered a step in the student’s development. At the same time, E. Thorndike did not see the difference between human learning and animal learning and denied the role of consciousness in learning.

These views were shared by W. James, J. Watson, and K. Koffka, although they understood the nature of learning differently. They believed that all learning is developmental.

Another point of view expressed by the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, denying the connection between learning and development child. According to it, the development of a child is a consequence of internal, spontaneous self-change, on which training has no influence. According to J. Piaget, a child’s thinking inevitably goes through all known phases and stages, regardless of the learning process. Moreover, learning is determined by the level of human development. Education is only the external conditions of maturation and child development. This point of view was adhered to by A. Gesell, S. Freud, and others.

Another point of view, most recognized by Russian scientists, contains the following postulate: learning leads to development and must go ahead of it. It was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in his concept of the mental development of a child.

Education, according to L. S. Vygotsky, is the source of a child’s development. Under the influence of learning, a restructuring of all mental functions occurs.

When solving the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development, L. S. Vygotsky assigned the leading role to education. The process of child development, he believed, does not coincide with the learning process, but follows it. Developing this thesis, he identified two levels of child development: the level of his actual development and the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development is found in solving problems together with adults. It is training that should create the zone of proximal development. Such learning advances development, goes ahead of it, relying not only on mature functions, but also on those that are still maturing. In line with the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky was developed by domestic psychologists: S.L. Rubinshtein, B.G. Ananyev, L.I. Bozhovich, L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, A.N. Leontiev, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Davydov and etc. The theoretical foundation they created was used by science and reflected in its basic concepts of teaching.

173. The concept of “zone of proximal development” L.S. Vygotsky, its theoretical and practical significance.

See question 127 (developmental psychology)

174. L.S. Vygotsky. Cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions.

See question 130 (developmental psychology)

175. Differences between the concepts: “teaching”, “training”, “teaching”, “educational activity.”

Teaching is defined as a person’s learning as a result of his purposeful, conscious appropriation of his transmitted (broadcast) sociocultural (socio-historical) experience and individual experience formed on this basis. Consequently, teaching is considered as a type of learning.

Learning differs from learning as the acquisition of experience in activities directed by cognitive motives or motives and goals. Through learning, any experience can be acquired - knowledge, abilities, skills (in humans) and new forms of behavior (in animals).

Education in the most common sense of this term means the purposeful, consistent transfer (broadcast) of sociocultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. In psychological and pedagogical terms, learning is considered as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating the student’s educational and cognitive activity.

In addition, the concepts of “learning” and “training” are equally applicable to both humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of “teaching”. In foreign psychology, the concept of “learning” is used as an equivalent to “teaching”. If “learning” and “teaching” denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term “learning” describes both the process itself and its result.

Scientists interpret the triad of concepts under consideration in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are like that.

A.K. Markova: considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills; interprets teaching from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring that students acquire knowledge and master the methods of acquiring knowledge; learning is represented as the student’s activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering methods of acquiring knowledge (Markova A.K., 1990; abstract).

Talyzina: adheres to the interpretation of the concept of “learning” that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept in question exclusively to animals; It considers teaching only as the activity of a teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching as the activity of a student included in the educational process.

Thus, the psychological concepts of “learning”, “training”, “teaching” cover a wide range of phenomena related to the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.

The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process occurs most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of learning, and in a person - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.

So, teaching/training/teaching is the process of a subject acquiring new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and/or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is “learning”. Teaching a person as a result of his purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.

A rather ambiguous concept. We can distinguish three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and in pedagogy (see Fig. 1).

3. In the interpretation of the direction by D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov’s educational activity is one of the types of activities of schoolchildren and students, aimed at their assimilation through dialogues (polylogues) and discussions of theoretical knowledge and related skills and abilities in such spheres of social consciousness as science, art, morality, law and religion

176. Educational activity: concept, characteristics, structure, formation of main components.

"Learning activity" (UD) - a rather ambiguous concept. We can distinguish three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and in pedagogy.

1. Sometimes UD is considered as a synonym for learning, teaching, learning.

2. In “classical” Soviet psychology and pedagogy, UD is defined as the leading type of activity in primary school age. It is understood as a special form of social activity, manifesting itself through objective and cognitive actions.

3. In the interpretation of the direction by D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov's educational activity is one of the types of activities of schoolchildren and students, aimed at their mastering, through dialogues (polylogues) and discussions, theoretical knowledge and related skills in such spheres of social consciousness as science, art, morality, law and religion.

Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that examines psychological mechanisms, patterns, and factors in the development of the psyche in the conditions of training and education.

Pedagogical psychology is the science of the formation and development of the psyche in the educational space.

The beginning of the formation of this science dates back to the last third of the 19th century. The term “educational psychology” itself appeared in 1877, it was introduced by the Russian psychologist and teacher P.F. Kapetev. He wrote the book “Pedagogical Psychology for Folk Teachers, Educators and Educators.” After the publication of this book, educational psychology was recognized as an independent scientific field. The epigraph of this book was taken from Pestalozzi’s statement “I want to reduce all learning to psychological grounds.” Today, this problem is extremely relevant, very popular among researchers, but still controversial, having a number of contradictions that require solutions.

The subject of educational psychology is the psychological basis of personality formation in the process of training and education.

Tasks of educational psychology:

Identification of patterns of mental development in the process of training and education;

Establishing conditions for successful development of the psyche in the educational space;

Determination of the basic mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche in the process of training and education;

Establishment of factors influencing the psychological sphere of the individual during training and education;

Creation and development of methods and techniques for studying the characteristics of the functioning of the psyche in the process of education and upbringing;

Popularization scientific knowledge in society.

Sections of educational psychology:

- psychology of learning;

This direction deals with the study of psychological patterns of cognitive activity of students. One of the most important problems in this area is the issue of mental development of students. The issue of individualization and differentiation of the learning process is important. Today, a person-oriented approach in the process of teaching and educating schoolchildren is very popular and applied. This approach helps to solve, to a certain extent, the problem of developing human creative abilities. For educators, the issue of diagnosing mental development and the development of methods aimed at improving the productivity of students’ cognitive activity are extremely relevant.

- psychology of education;

This section studies the basic psychological mechanisms and patterns of formation of personal parameters of students within the educational process.

This section is aimed at identifying factors influencing the system of relations:

Student - student;

Teacher - student;

Parents - student;

Teacher - administration;

Parents - school;

Student - administration;

Adults are children.

This section examines the psychological conditions for the formation and development of morality, worldview, and personality orientation. A very important aspect is the psychology of self-development and self-education of a person.

- teacher psychology.

This direction studies the features of the functioning and development of the teacher’s psyche in the process of his professional activity. Special meaning have studies of pedagogical abilities of individual-typological personality qualities influencing professional activity, the question of becoming pedagogical excellence, as well as psychological aspects of professional interaction.

All three areas of educational psychology are developing very actively, having a significant impact on the holistic educational process.

Basic patterns of formation of a child’s personality

It is a well-known and indisputable proposition that personality is formed throughout life, and personal formations can appear at any age.
The basis for personality formation, according to Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev, is socialization- human appropriation of social experience in ontogenesis.
It is worth noting that socialization is an objective process (I invite everyone to answer for themselves why).

Any society prefers that its citizens acquire the desired social experience that does not contradict social norms and moral principles. Although gaining such experience is individual process, it is subject to certain laws:

- recognition of education as the basis for personality formation;

Upbringing- this is a purposeful influence on an individual in order to form the desired personal parameters.

Those changes that occur in the individual will be the result of upbringing.
Without the process of education, spiritual change, observance of traditions, development of norms of behavior and communication are impossible, that is, the qualitative change in personality that will provide her with a comfortable stay in society is impossible.

- recognition of the child as a subject of the educational and training process;

A child’s independent activity is one of the characteristics of a subjective attitude towards the world. This means that only personal desire, personal desire for a particular action leads to a positive result.

Without individual activity, the process of personality formation is extremely ineffective. Therefore, treating a person’s developing personality as an object of development does not bring the desired results.

The teacher must remember that he is obliged to organize the child’s activities in such a way that he is convinced that he himself wants this. The role of the teacher, according to Vygodsky, is only to organize the conditions, environment and control the results of the child’s independent activity.

- inclusion of the child’s motivational-need sphere;

Needs play a huge role in the life of any creature. In addition to natural needs, a person also has socially significant ones. They arise against the background of specific socio-economic relations, formed interests and internal incentives.

Personal qualities are formed depending on motives. The basis for the practical implementation of motives is activity.

Thus, the scheme is implemented: Activity à Need à Motive à Activity à Need à house-house à

For a teacher, parent, or adult who influences a developing personality, the basis is the formation of needs and motives.

- taking into account “the developing child’s tomorrow”;

These are the potential, objectively existing, well-founded capabilities of the child, which the parent, teacher, and educator should focus on.

In this case, the process of personality development becomes purposeful, individual, manageable and productive. Moreover, knowledge of this pattern makes it possible to design the development of personality and painless, without great mental stress, its development.

- taking into account the principle of psychology: the development of the psyche occurs only in activity.

A teacher, parent, educator must remember that not every activity develops a personality or contributes to the emergence of new mental formations, but only the leading activity of its age period of development.

Psychology of learning

Questions:

Subject of psychology of learning, characteristics of learning;

Psychological theories of learning, development and organization of educational activities;

Psychological components of knowledge acquisition;

Psychological reasons for children's academic failure.

Thorndike's theory consisted in recognizing the identity of the processes of development and learning. His followers still believe that every step in learning is a step in development, every step in development is the result of training and education. Moreover, representatives of this direction still believe that there is no difference in the training (and development) of humans and animals. Over time, this movement developed into behaviorism.
Representatives (for example, Skinner, Maslow and their followers) believe that the basis of human development is the formation of behavioral skills. They are the basis of human socialization, adaptation and intellectualization. These scientists believe that it is possible to instill even intellectual skills that will gradually develop into skills. In this way, you can instill, for example, the skill of being attentive, the skill of thinking, etc.

- The theory of Jean-Jacques Piaget.

Piaget theoretically substantiated and practically tried to prove that development is absolutely independent of training and education. These processes, in his opinion, are like rails - absolutely parallel, never intersecting anywhere. Moreover, Piaget believed that development goes ahead of learning and pulls it along with it.

- The theory of two factors.

Proposed and substantiated by Soviet scientists. The theory is based on the teachings of Vygotsky, as his cultural-historical concept.

The essence of the theory is that development and learning are equivalent processes that are closely intertwined and constantly influence each other.

Important in the development of personality biological factor, that is, a certain natural predisposition to a particular activity. No less important is the social factor, that is, the ability to master the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities required by society.

“If a person is naturally hard of hearing, then no matter how much we want, he will never become a composer, however, if a person never sees a musical instrument, he will also not be able to be a composer” Khrebkova.

Theory of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky " Cultural-historical concept".
At a certain stage of a person’s life, development is the predominant factor determining the formation of the psyche and personality. Starting from the complication of the personality’s self-concept (from 6 years of age), education and upbringing gradually begin to lead to development. From now on, writes Lev Semenovich, learning simply must go ahead of development and lead it along.

This theory of Vygotsky revolutionized the content of the organization of the educational process, but for it to work effectively, it is necessary to remember that our psyche constantly characterized by two levels:

Zone of current development;

This is the current, currently available level of development, characterized by a person’s ability to independently, without any help, perform certain external and internal actions.

Zone of proximal development.

The dominant one is, of course, the second level, but without support from the first, it makes no sense.

- Pedology.

The theory appeared in Russia in the 19th century and was very popular among progressive teachers and psychologists

Psychological components of learning

As a result of properly organized activities, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, resulting in the mental development of the student. The main thing in this process is the assimilation and, in the future, the appropriation of previous experience.

Assimilation is organized cognitive activity student, activating a number of mental processes.

Nikolai Dmitrievich Levitov identified the main components of assimilation, which form the basis of personal mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities (appropriation).

Assimilation is the main way an individual acquires socio-historical experience.

Components of assimilation:

- Positive attitude of the student towards the learning process;

From the point of view of mental reflection, the effectiveness of any mental process will be quite high if the sthenic emotional background predominates. The speed and strength of assimilation will be based on non-denial of what a person is doing, that is, the psyche will not erect barriers, sometimes even beyond the desire of the individual.
IN last years There was a sharp decline in children's positive attitudes toward learning. Why?

Unfavorable socio-economic relations;

Increasing the amount of required information;

Very frequent predominance of negative emotional background.

For example, school fear is a condition that depresses mental processes, which puts a barrier in terms of assimilation and appropriation of knowledge. Children driven by fear practically do not think, remember very poorly, and their attention is extremely scattered.

A positive attitude is formed:

Interest in knowledge and information;

Accepting information as necessary;

Developing abilities to overcome difficulties.

A huge role in cognition is played by the feeling of satisfaction from acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the presence of positive motivation, that is, an internal absolute conviction of the need to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities.

In this process, no one’s role can be assumed: neither the student, nor close adults, nor the teacher.

- Activation of the processes of direct sensory familiarization with the material;

Let us consider only sensations and perceptions as the most effective for assimilation of material.

The teacher’s task is to ensure that the student in the lesson not only looks, but also sees, not only listens, but also hears everything that happens in the lesson. This helps the child to most fully and comprehensively create in his brain an image of the subject being studied.
The object of perception in the learning process is everything that surrounds the child. This is why every teacher must begin by educational space did not include unnecessary objects that are not important at a given time.

If the teacher’s speech suffers from any errors (such as speech defects, fast tempo, high tone, unusual phonemic consonance), then the perception of meaning deteriorates significantly. The teacher's appearance (especially at the first meeting) plays a huge role. Very often, sympathy or antipathy arises in the first minutes of communication. With long-term communication with a teacher, his appearance completely loses importance.

Everything that the teacher uses as visual material must meet the following requirements:

Tables should be clear;

Contrast must be maintained (for example, diagrams);

The best board option is a dark brown background and white chalk;

The main material should always be located in the center;

Familiar material should always be in the same place;

Educational films should be no more than 10 minutes long;

During the entire educational process, it is necessary to use almost all types of perception: hearing, vision, touch.

For most children, perception is best achieved through a complex of sensations.

A theoretical learning process is always less effective than a process with practical elements.

- Thought processlearning as a process of active processing of received information;

Thinking plays an important role in the process of acquiring knowledge.
A special place is occupied by:

Forms of thinking and ability to master them;

Thinking operations must be developed in accordance with age;

Types of thinking must also be at a level of development sufficient for a given age;

Development of mental qualities.

- The process of memorizing and preserving material;

As a rule, students with memory deficiencies perform worse than those with well-developed memory.

The following memory parameters are subject to development:

Types of memory (especially figurative = sensory memory);

Memory processes (especially memorization, assimilation, reproduction).

Types of memory, as a rule, do not change (there are four types: quickly remembered - quickly forgotten, quickly remembered - slowly forgotten, etc.). The teacher simply must take into account what type of memory the child has and treat this with understanding.

- Attention how necessary condition the success of all previous components.

Attention is a mental state that ensures the success of all mental forms of reflection. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the formation and development of attention.

In the educational process, it is important to develop types of attention, especially secondary voluntary attention. To do this, it is necessary to involve the processes of awareness, motivation and the volitional sphere.

Reasons for low absorption:

Pedagogical reasons:

Weak teacher;

Overcrowding of classes (the norm for the elementary class is 15 people, for the senior class - 17-22);

Imperfection of programs;

Very low level textbooks and teaching aids;

Ineffective structure of the school day;

Ineffective forms of conducting classes.

Psychological reasons:

Failure to take into account the current level of personal development;

Developmental delay in accordance with the age norm - developmental delay;

Insufficient development of mental forms of reflection (especially thinking, perception, memory);

Lack of reliance on individual typological characteristics of the personality;

Poor genetic inheritance;

Underdevelopment of the child's ability to self-regulate.

Psychology of educational influences

Upbringing and educational tasks in educational institutions are solved largely depending on how the teacher knows how to influence students.
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky once said: “Without the personal direct influence of the teacher on the student, true education is impossible.”
All educational influences affect the inner world of a person. That is why they must be built in accordance with the laws of the functioning of the psyche.

Types of educational influences:

- Impact "request";

This is one of the softest effects. The request does not imply any pressure on the child.

The main characteristic of a request is that it takes into account the child’s ability to fulfill it.
When making a request, it is important to remember:

The request should not exceed the child's capabilities;

The child should not be an intermediary between the teacher and the performer;

Refusal to comply should not have a negative impact on the child;

Any request should be based on future gratitude for fulfillment.

- Impact "demand";

This is a more severe impact, which requires mandatory implementation.
The requirement must be subject to some administrative regulation.
The requirement must be reasonable. An unreasonable requirement will cause resistance and non-compliance.

When presenting demands, you cannot use a pleading tone; you cannot allow lack of control and lack of evaluation.

Failure to comply should result in some form of reprimand or punishment.

- Impact "order";

This is the most severe of the imposed impacts. That is why the order is always based on legally accepted provisions. These provisions are adopted at the level of institutions or government bodies.

Execution of the order is not discussed. It is mandatory for all participants in the process.

- Impact "score":

- Evaluation-praise;

The only difference between evaluation and praise: praise is verbal encouragement, but true encouragement has a material basis. From the point of view of psychological perception, encouragement causes a positive emotional background.

- Evaluation and encouragement;

When applying incentives, you must remember:

The business is encouraged, not the individual;

Encouragement must be adequate to what has been done;

You should not reward for the same thing several times;

Encouragement must necessarily evoke the approval of others;

It is better to encourage and praise publicly, and not one-on-one;

Melancholic and phlegmatic people should be encouraged more often than choleric people;

Even the desire to do something should be encouraged;

Don't reward too often.

- Evaluation-punishment.

Punishment is the opposite of reward.

Requirements for punishment:

It is better to punish one than in front of all;

You cannot punish for what is not proven;

You cannot punish simply for bad behavior;

The punishment must correspond to the extent of the offense;

You cannot punish for the same thing several times;

You cannot punish rashly;

You cannot punish with labor;

The punishment must be fair.

It is easy for a teacher to make mistakes when using rewards or punishments.

Undeserved constant rewards lead to arrogance and hostility on the part of others. Wrong punishment can cause personal humiliation, feelings of anger and hatred towards the teacher. All this leads to deformation of the child’s personal growth.

- Impact "shortcut";

The teacher has no right to label or invent nicknames for students. This has an extremely negative effect on children and others. Most often, such an action causes a similar reaction.

- The influence of "suggestion".

Suggestion is very complex look impact, which is built on a significant reduction in a person’s critical attitude to incoming information.
Among all people who are suggestible - 70%. Therefore, the teacher must very carefully use suggestion as a measure of influence.

Suggestion is always deliberate and is most often carried out verbally.

Affects suggestibility:

Age;

The most suggestible are children and the elderly.

State of the body;

Tired, weakened, sick people are more suggestible.

Large crowd of people acting synchronously;

Level of intellectual development

The lower the level, the easier it is to suggest.

Character traits;

Trust, suspicion, kindness, simplicity...

The effectiveness of suggestion also depends on:

From the environment where the person suggests;

On the nature of social relations;

In a society where there is intimidation, suggestibility is stronger. Those in need are more suggestible.

The teacher must remember rules of suggestion:

You need to look into the eyes of the suggestible;

You need to remain absolutely calm, relaxed and relaxed;

Speech should be clear, intelligible, slightly slow;

Under no circumstances should you show any nervousness.