Territory of the Roman Empire. Rome

And, in fact, let's talk about the date that is usually considered the end of the Western Roman Empire. The Romans themselves did not even notice this event. This will happen often in the future. Big things can be seen from a distance. Historians declared this date to be the end of antiquity, the end of the Western Roman Empire. For the Romans themselves, this was an ordinary event. Remember this date. 476

The last Roman emperor was a boy. His name was Romulus Augustulus. Another irony of fate. Romulus - as the founder of Rome, Augustulus - as the founder of the Roman Empire (Augustus Octavian, only “Augustulus” means a diminutive of “August”; Augusticus is like “little Augustus”). Romulus Augustulus. His name combines the names of the founder of the city and the founder of the empire.

So, he was overthrown from the throne by the leader of the barbarian mercenaries Odoacer. Then Odoacer will be overthrown by Theodoric, the founder of the Visigothic kingdom. And Odoacer did not declare himself emperor, as he could have. Well, what is an emperor? The Emperor is nothing anymore. And Odoacer did something else: he sent signs of imperial power, imperial dignity to the Eastern Roman Empire, to Constantinople with the words: “as there is one god in heaven, so there is one emperor on earth.” And so the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

The Eastern one, I repeat, remains and will exist for another 1000 years, becoming a bridge connecting Antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the West, the Dark Ages, barbarian kingdoms, and long-term cultural decline begin. In general, a completely new era begins. Nobody even noticed this fall of the Western Roman Empire. And, in general, antiquity ended. What's left?

What's left? What remains is magic and mythology. The idea of ​​empire remained. Then, in the Middle Ages, they will create the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. Sounds funny, right? Charlemagne will proclaim himself Roman Emperor, although he is a Frank. Then there will be the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. How is this the Roman Empire of the German nation? The Empire can only be Roman. The very concept, the archetype of empire goes back there. Moscow is the “third Rome”. Again, see: “third Rome”. That is, Rome became a symbol of empire, a symbol of power, a symbol of power.

What remains is Latin. Wonderful language, very expressive, dry, laconic. The classical Latin of Cicero, the language of learned theologians, the language of cultural communication in Western Europe. Now lawyers speak it, pharmacists write their prescriptions. Latin will bind European culture.

What remains is Christianity. The Pope is the head of the Christian world. A single universal religion that arose in the Roman Empire.

Well, also bridges, arches, aqueducts, sculptures. By the way, Greek copies will reach us only in the Roman version, only in the Roman version.

Yes, the ideal of the citizen will remain. Many centuries later, subsequent generations will be guided by the ideals of Roman virtue. For example, the entire French Revolution takes place under the sign of Rome. French revolutionaries of the late 18th century play Brutus, Cassiev, Cato, and dress up in Roman togas. One of the figures of the French Revolution would even take the name Gracchus Babeuf in honor of the Gracchi brothers. The French will introduce a senate and prefectures. That is, Rome is the ideal of citizenship, the ideal of absolute dedication, service to the fatherland, valor, military prowess, administrative success, republican virtues.

Roman law will remain, detailed, detailed, divided into private law, civil law, and its various branches.

What will remain is remarkable oratory and vast political experience.

The remains of the great and ancient civilization which will come to us. Greek civilization will pass to us through the Romans. This tradition will never be interrupted. Let us remember the Renaissance, when in the 15th - 16th centuries Italians will suddenly discover classical Latin, discover Roman political theory in the person of Machiavelli, they will discover their origins. Dante, the great Italian poet, in his poem " The Divine Comedy"will bring out Virgil, the great poet of Rome, who will be his guide through hell.

This is forever, like everything real, like everything great, although the greatness of Rome is very specific, very original, very limited. Rome, of course, will in some sense become a myth. And the myth is immortal. A myth is, in a sense, like a known reality, more real than what we consider reality.

And all this diverse Roman heritage will pass on to subsequent eras and will largely shape the world of subsequent centuries. Including the world in which you and I live.

This is a kind of phase in the development of Roman statehood at that time. It existed since 27 BC. e. to 476, and the main language was Latin.

The great Roman Empire held many other states of that time in excitement and admiration for centuries. And this is not without reason. This power did not appear immediately. The empire developed gradually. Let us consider in the article how it all began, all the main events, emperors, culture, as well as the coat of arms and colors of the flag of the Roman Empire.

Periodization of the Roman Empire

As you know, all states, countries, and civilizations in the world had a chronology of events, which can be conditionally divided into several periods. The Roman Empire had several main stages:

• period of the Principate (27 BC - 193 AD);
• crisis of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century. AD (193 - 284 AD);
• Dominant period (284 - 476 AD);
• collapse and division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern.

Before the formation of the Roman Empire

Let's turn to history and briefly consider what preceded the formation of the state. In general, the first people appeared on the territory of present-day Rome around the second millennium BC. e. on the Tiber River. In the 8th century BC. e. two large tribes united and built a fortress. Thus, we can assume that April 13, 753 BC. e. Rome was formed.

First there was the royal and then the republican periods of government with their own events, kings and history. This period of time from 753 BC. e. called Ancient Rome. But in 27 BC. e. Thanks to Octavian Augustus, an empire was formed. A new era has arrived.

Principate

The formation of the Roman Empire was facilitated by civil wars, from which Octavian emerged victorious. The Senate gave him the name Augustus, and the ruler himself founded the Principate system, which included a mixture of monarchical and republican forms of government. He also became the founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, but it did not last long. The city of Rome remained the capital of the Roman Empire.

The reign of Augustus was considered very favorable for the people. Being the nephew of the great commander - Gaius Julius Caesar - it was Octavian who carried out reforms: one of the main ones is the reform of the army, the essence of which was to form a Roman military force. Each soldier had to serve up to 25 years, could not start a family and lived on benefits. But this helped finally form a standing army after almost a century of its formation, when it was unreliable due to inconstancy. Also, the merits of Octavian Augustus are considered to be the conduct of budgetary policy and, of course, changes in the system of power. Under him, Christianity began to emerge in the empire.

The first emperor was deified, especially outside of Rome, but the ruler himself did not want there to be a cult of ascension to god in the capital. But in the provinces, many temples were erected in his honor and his reign was given sacred significance.

Augustus spent a decent part of his life traveling. He wanted to revive the spirituality of the people, thanks to him dilapidated churches and other buildings were restored. During his reign, many slaves were freed, and the ruler himself was a kind of example of ancient Roman valor and lived in modest possessions.

Yulio-Claudian Dynasty

The next emperor, as well as the great pontiff and representative of the dynasty, was Tiberius. He was the adopted son of Octavian, who also had a grandson. In fact, the issue of the succession to the throne remained unresolved after the death of the first emperor, but Tiberius stood out for his merits and intelligence, so he was destined to become a sovereign ruler. He himself did not want to be a despot. He ruled very honorably and not cruelly. But after problems in the emperor’s family, as well as a clash of his interests with the Senate, full of republican attitudes, everything resulted in an “unholy war in the Senate.” He ruled only from 14 to 37.

The third emperor and representative of the dynasty was the son of Tiberius' nephew, Caligula, who ruled for only 4 years - from 37 to 41. At first, everyone sympathized with him as a worthy emperor, but his power changed greatly: he became cruel, caused strong discontent among the people and was killed.

The next emperor was Claudius (41-54), with the help of whom, in fact, his two wives, Messalina and Agrippina, ruled. Through various manipulations, the second woman managed to make her son Nero ruler (54-68). Under him there was a “great fire” in 64 AD. e., which greatly destroyed Rome. Nero committed suicide, and a civil war broke out, in which the last three representatives of the dynasty died in just one year. 68-69 was called the “year of four emperors.”

Flavian Dynasty (69 to 96 AD)

Vespasian was the main one in the fight against the rebel Jews. He became emperor and founded a new dynasty. He managed to suppress the uprisings in Judea, restore the economy, rebuild Rome after the “great fire” and put the empire in order after numerous internal unrest and rebellions, and improve relations with the Senate. He ruled until 79 AD. e. His honorable reign was continued by his son Titus, who ruled for only two years. The next emperor was Vespasian's youngest son, Domitian (81-96). Unlike the first two representatives of the dynasty, he was distinguished by his hostility and confrontations with the Senate. He was killed as a result of a conspiracy.

During the reign of the Flavian dynasty, the great amphitheater Colosseum was created in Rome. They worked on its construction for 8 years. Numerous gladiator fights were held here.

Antonine Dynasty

The time fell precisely during the reign of this dynasty. The rulers of this period were called the "five good emperors." The Antonines (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius) ruled successively from 96 to 180 AD. e. After the conspiracy and murder of Domitian because of his hostility to the Senate, Nerva, who was precisely from the senatorial environment, became emperor. He ruled for two years, and the next ruler was his adopted son, Ulpius Trajan, who became one of the best people who ever ruled during the Roman Empire.

Trajan significantly expanded his territory. Four known provinces were formed: Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Arabia. Trajan needed the colonization of other places not for the purposes of conquest, but for protection from attacks by nomads and barbarians. The most remote places were built with numerous stone towers.

The third emperor of the Roman Empire during the Antonine dynasty and successor of Trajan was Hadrian. He made many reforms in the fields of law and education, as well as in the field of finance. He received the nickname "enricher of the world." The next ruler was Antonin, who was nicknamed “the father of the human race” for his concern not only for Rome, but also for the provinces that he improved. Then he was ruled by a very good philosopher, but he had to spend a lot of time in the war on the Danube, where he died in 180. This marked the end of the era of the “five good emperors,” when the empire flourished and democracy reached its peak.

The last emperor to end the dynasty was Commodus. He was fond of gladiator fights, and placed the management of the empire on the shoulders of other people. He died at the hands of the conspirators in 193.

Severan Dynasty

People proclaimed the ruler to be a native of Africa - a commander who ruled until his death in 211. He was very warlike, which was passed on to his son Caracalla, who became emperor by killing his brother. But it was thanks to him that people from the provinces finally received the right to become Both rulers did a lot. For example, they returned independence to Alexandria and gave the Alexandrians the right to occupy government positions. positions. Then Heliogabalus and Alexander ruled until 235.

Crisis of the third century

This turning point was great importance for the people of that time, that historians distinguish it as a separate period in the history of the Roman Empire. This crisis lasted almost half a century: from 235 after the death of Alexander Severus until 284.

The reason was wars with tribes on the Danube, which began in the time of Marcus Aurelius, clashes with people beyond the Rhine, and instability of power. People had to fight a lot, and the authorities spent money, time and effort on these conflicts, which significantly worsened the economy and economy of the empire. And also in times of crisis, there were constant conflicts between the armies that nominated their candidates for the throne. In addition, the Senate also fought for the right to have significant influence on the empire, but lost it altogether. Ancient culture also fell into decline after the crisis.

Dominant period

The end of the crisis was the elevation of Diocletian to emperor in 285. It was he who marked the beginning of the period of dominance, which meant a change from the republican form of government to an absolute monarchy. The Age of Tetrarchy also dates back to this time.

The emperor began to be called “dominant,” which translated means “lord and god.” Domitian called himself this for the first time. But in the 1st century such a position of the ruler would have been perceived with hostility, and after 285 - calmly. The Senate as such did not cease to exist, but no longer had as much influence on the monarch, who ultimately made decisions himself.

Under the reign of Diocletian, Christianity had already penetrated into the life of the Romans, but all Christians began to be even more persecuted and punitive measures taken for their faith.

In 305, the emperor abdicated power, and a small struggle for the throne began until Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, came to the throne. He was the sole ruler, but there was a division of the empire into provinces and prefectures. Unlike Diocletian, he was not so harsh towards Christians and even stopped persecuting them. Moreover, Constantine introduced common faith and made Christianity the state religion. He also moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was later called Constantinople. The sons of Constantine ruled from 337 to 363. In 363, Julian the Apostate died, which marked the end of the dynasty.

The Roman Empire still continued to exist, although the transfer of the capital was a very drastic event for the Romans. After 363, two more families ruled: the Valentinian (364-392) and Theodosian (379-457) dynasties. It is known that a significant event in 378 was the Battle of Adrianople between the Goths and Romans.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Rome actually continued to exist. But the year 476 is considered the end of the history of the empire.

Its fall was influenced by the transfer of the capital to Constantinople under Constantine in 395, where the Senate was even recreated. It was this year that it happened in Western and Eastern. This event in 395 is also considered to be the beginning of the history of Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire). But it is worth understanding that Byzantium is no longer the Roman Empire.

But why then does the story end only in 476? Because after 395 the Western Roman Empire with its capital in Rome remained in existence. But the rulers could not cope with such a large territory, suffered constant attacks from enemies, and Rome went bankrupt.

This collapse was facilitated by the expansion of lands that needed to be monitored and the strengthening of the army of enemies. After the battle with the Goths and the defeat of the Roman army of Flavius ​​Valens in 378, the former became very powerful for the latter, while the inhabitants of the Roman Empire were increasingly inclined to a peaceful life. Few people wanted to devote themselves to the army for many years; most simply loved farming.

Already under the weakened Western Empire in 410, the Visigoths took Rome, in 455 the Vandals captured the capital, and on September 4, 476, the leader of the Germanic tribes, Odoacer, forced Romulus Augustus to abdicate the throne. He became last emperor The Roman Empire, Rome no longer belonged to the Romans. The history of the great empire was over. Capital for a long time ruled different people, having nothing to do with the Romans.

So, in what year did the Roman Empire collapse? Definitely in 476, but this collapse, one might say, began long before the events, when the empire began to decline and weaken, and barbarian Germanic tribes began to inhabit the territory.

History after 476

Nevertheless, even though the Roman emperor was overthrown at the top, and the empire came into the possession of German barbarians, the Romans still continued to exist. It continued to exist even for several centuries after 376 until 630. But in terms of territory, Rome now only owned parts of what is now Italy. At this time the Middle Ages had just begun.

Byzantium became the successor to the culture and traditions of the civilization of Ancient Rome. It existed for almost a century after its formation, while the Western Roman Empire fell. Only in 1453 did the Ottomans capture Byzantium, and that was the end of its history. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul.

And in 962, thanks to Otto 1 the Great, the Holy Roman Empire was formed - a state. Its core was Germany, of which he was king.

Otto 1 the Great already owned very large territories. The empire of the 10th century included almost all of Europe, including Italy (the lands of the fallen Western Roman Empire, whose culture they wanted to recreate). Over time, the boundaries of the territory changed. Nevertheless, this empire lasted for almost a millennium until 1806, when Napoleon was able to dissolve it.

The capital was formally Rome. The Holy Roman Emperors ruled and had many vassals in other parts of their large domains. All rulers claimed supreme power in Christianity, which at that time gained widespread influence throughout Europe. The crown of the Holy Roman Emperors was given only by the pope after the coronation in Rome.

The coat of arms of the Roman Empire depicts double headed eagle. This symbol was (and still is) found in the symbolism of many states. Oddly enough, the coat of arms of Byzantium also depicts the same symbol as the coat of arms of the Roman Empire.

The flag of the 13th-14th centuries depicted a white cross on a red background. However, it became different in 1400 and lasted until 1806 until the fall of the Holy Roman Empire.

The flag has had a double-headed eagle since 1400. This symbolizes the emperor, while the one-headed bird symbolizes the king. The colors of the flag of the Roman Empire are also interesting: a black eagle on a yellow background.

Nevertheless, it is a very big mistake to attribute the Roman Empire before medieval times to the Holy German Roman Empire, which, although Italy was part of it, was in fact a completely different state.

The Roman Empire (ancient Rome) left an imperishable mark on all European lands wherever its victorious legions set foot. The stone ligature of Roman architecture has been preserved to this day: walls that protected citizens, along which troops moved, aqueducts that delivered fresh water to citizens, and bridges thrown over stormy rivers. As if all this were not enough, the legionnaires erected more and more structures - even as the borders of the empire began to recede. During the era of Hadrian, when Rome was much more concerned with consolidating the lands than with new conquests, the unclaimed combat prowess of soldiers, long separated from home and family, was wisely directed in another creative direction. In a sense, everything European owes its birth to the Roman builders who introduced many innovations both in Rome itself and beyond. The most important achievements of urban planning, which had the goal of public benefit, were sewerage and water supply systems, which created healthy living conditions and contributed to the increase in population and the growth of the cities themselves. But all this would have been impossible if the Romans had not invented concrete and did not begin to use the arch as the main architectural element. It was these two innovations that the Roman army spread throughout the empire.

Since stone arches could withstand enormous weight and could be built very high - sometimes two or three tiers - engineers working in the provinces easily crossed any rivers and gorges and reached the farthest edges, leaving behind strong bridges and powerful water pipelines (aqueducts). Like many other structures built with the help of Roman troops, the bridge in the Spanish city of Segovia, which carries a water supply, has gigantic dimensions: 27.5 m in height and about 823 m in length. Unusually tall and slender pillars, made of roughly hewn and unfastened granite blocks, and 128 graceful arches leave the impression of not only unprecedented power, but also imperial self-confidence. This is a miracle of engineering, built about 100 thousand years ago. e., has stood the test of time: until recently, the bridge served the water supply system of Segovia.

How it all began?

Early settlements on the site of the future city of Rome arose on the Apennine Peninsula, in the valley of the Tiber River, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. According to legend, the Romans descend from Trojan refugees who founded the city of Alba Longa in Italy. Rome itself, according to legend, was founded by Romulus, the grandson of the king of Alba Longa, in 753 BC. e. As in the Greek city-states, in the early period of the history of Rome it was ruled by kings who enjoyed virtually the same power as the Greek ones. Under the tyrant king Tarquinius Proud, a popular uprising took place, during which the royal power was destroyed and Rome turned into an aristocratic republic. Its population was clearly divided into two groups - the privileged class of patricians and the class of plebeians, which had significantly fewer rights. A patrician was considered a member of the most ancient Roman family; only the senate (the main government body) was elected from the patricians. A significant part of its early history is the struggle of the plebeians to expand their rights and transform members of their class into full Roman citizens.

Ancient Rome differed from the Greek city-states because it was located in completely different geographical conditions - a single Apennine peninsula with vast plains. Therefore, from the earliest period of its history, its citizens were forced to compete and fight with neighboring Italic tribes. The conquered peoples submitted to this great empire either as allies, or were simply included in the republic, and the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, often turning into slaves. The most powerful opponents of Rome in the 4th century. BC e. there were Etruscans and Samnites, as well as separate Greek colonies in southern Italy (Magna Graecia). And yet, despite the fact that the Romans were often at odds with the Greek colonists, the more developed Hellenic culture had a noticeable impact on the culture of the Romans. It got to the point that the ancient Roman deities began to be identified with their Greek counterparts: Jupiter with Zeus, Mars with Ares, Venus with Aphrodite, etc.

Wars of the Roman Empire

The most tense moment in the confrontation between the Romans and the southern Italians and Greeks was the war of 280-272. BC e., when Pyrrhus, the king of the state of Epirus, located in the Balkans, intervened in the course of hostilities. In the end, Pyrrhus and his allies were defeated, and by 265 BC. e. The Roman Republic united all of Central and Southern Italy under its rule.

Continuing the war with the Greek colonists, the Romans clashed with the Carthaginian (Punic) power in Sicily. In 265 BC. e. the so-called Punic Wars began, lasting until 146 BC. e., almost 120 years. At first the Romans led fighting against the Greek colonies in eastern Sicily, primarily against the largest of them, the city of Syracuse. Then the seizure of Carthaginian lands in the east of the island began, which led to the fact that the Carthaginians, who had a strong fleet, attacked the Romans. After the first defeats, the Romans managed to create their own fleet and defeat the Carthaginian ships in the battle of the Aegatian Islands. A peace was signed, according to which in 241 BC. e. all of Sicily, considered the breadbasket of the Western Mediterranean, became the property of the Roman Republic.

Carthaginian dissatisfaction with the results First Punic War, as well as the gradual penetration of the Romans into the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, which was owned by Carthage, led to a second military clash between the powers. In 219 BC. e. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barki captured the Spanish city of Saguntum, an ally of the Romans, then passed through southern Gaul and, having overcome the Alps, invaded the territory of the Roman Republic itself. Hannibal was supported by part of the Italian tribes who were dissatisfied with the rule of Rome. In 216 BC. e. in Apulia, in the bloody battle of Cannae, Hannibal surrounded and almost completely destroyed the Roman army, commanded by Gaius Terentius Varro and Aemilius Paulus. However, Hannibal was unable to take the heavily fortified city and was eventually forced to leave the Apennine Peninsula.

The war was moved to northern Africa, where Carthage and other Punic settlements were located. In 202 BC. e. The Roman commander Scipio defeated Hannibal's army near the town of Zama, south of Carthage, after which peace was signed on terms dictated by the Romans. The Carthaginians were deprived of all their possessions outside Africa and were obliged to transfer all warships and war elephants to the Romans. Having won the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic became the most powerful state in the Western Mediterranean. Third Punic War, which took place from 149 to 146 BC. e., came down to finishing off an already defeated enemy. In the spring of 14b BC. e. Carthage was taken and destroyed, and its inhabitants.

Defensive walls of the Roman Empire

The relief from Trajan's Column depicts a scene (see left) from the Dacian Wars; Legionnaires (they are without helmets) are constructing a camp camp from rectangular pieces of turf. When Roman soldiers found themselves in enemy lands, the construction of such fortifications was common.

“Fear gave birth to beauty, and ancient Rome was miraculously transformed, changing its previous - peaceful - policy and began hastily erecting towers, so that soon all seven of its hills sparkled with the armor of a continuous wall.”- this is what one Roman wrote about the powerful fortifications built around Rome in 275 for protection against the Goths. Following the example of the capital big cities throughout the Roman Empire, many of which had long since “stepped over” the boundaries of the former walls, hastened to strengthen their defensive lines.

The construction of the city walls was extremely labor-intensive work. Usually two deep ditches were dug around the settlement, and a high earthen rampart was piled between them. It served as a kind of layer between two concentric walls. External the wall went 9 m into the ground so that the enemy could not make a tunnel, and at the top it was equipped with a wide road for sentinels. The inner wall rose a few more meters to make it more difficult to shell the city. Such fortifications were almost indestructible: their thickness reached 6 m, and the stone blocks were fitted to each other with metal brackets - for greater strength.

When the walls were completed, construction of the gates could begin. A temporary wooden arch - formwork - was built over the opening in the wall. On top of it, skilled masons, moving from both sides to the middle, laid wedge-shaped slabs, forming a bend in the arch. When the last - the castle, or key - stone was installed, the formwork was removed, and next to the first arch they began to build a second one. And so on until the entire passage to the city was under a semicircular roof - the Korobov vault.

The guard posts at the gates that guarded the peace of the city often looked like real small fortresses: there were military barracks, stocks of weapons and food. In Germany, the so-called one is perfectly preserved (see below). On its lower beams there were loopholes instead of windows, and on both sides there were round towers - to make it more convenient to fire at the enemy. During the siege, a powerful grate was lowered onto the gate.

The wall, built in the 3rd century around Rome (19 km long, 3.5 m thick and 18 m high), had 381 towers and 18 gates with lowering portcullis. The wall was constantly renewed and strengthened, so that it served the City until the 19th century, that is, until artillery was improved. Two thirds of this wall still stands today.

The majestic Porta Nigra (that is, the Black Gate), rising 30 m in height, personifies the power of imperial Rome. The fortified gate is flanked by two towers, one of which is significantly damaged. The gate once served as an entrance to the city walls of the 2nd century AD. e. to Augusta Trevirorum (later Trier), the northern capital of the empire.

Aqueducts of the Roman Empire. The road of life of the imperial city

The famous three-tier aqueduct in Southern France (see above), spanning the Gard River and its low-lying valley - the so-called Gard Bridge - is as beautiful as it is functional. This structure, stretching 244 m in length, supplies about 22 tons of water daily from a distance of 48 km to the city of Nemaus (now Nimes). The Garda Bridge still remains one of the most wonderful works of Roman engineering art.

For the Romans, famous for their achievements in engineering, the subject of special pride was aqueducts. They supplied ancient Rome with about 250 million gallons of fresh water every day. In 97 AD e. Sextus Julius Frontinus, superintendent of Rome’s water supply system, rhetorically asked: “Who dares to compare our water pipelines, these great structures without which human life is unthinkable, with the idle pyramids or some worthless - albeit famous - creations of the Greeks?” Towards the end of its greatness, the city acquired eleven aqueducts through which water ran from the southern and eastern hills. Engineering has turned into real art: it seemed that the graceful arches easily jumped over obstacles, besides decorating the landscape. The Romans quickly “shared” their achievements with the rest of the Roman Empire, and remnants can still be seen today numerous aqueducts in France, Spain, Greece, North Africa and Asia Minor.

To provide water to provincial cities, whose population had already exhausted local supplies, and to build baths and fountains there, Roman engineers laid canals to rivers and springs, often tens of miles away. Flowing at a slight slope (Vitruvius recommended a minimum slope of 1:200), the precious moisture ran through stone pipes that ran through the countryside (and were mostly hidden into underground tunnels or ditches that followed the contours of the landscape) and eventually reached the city limits. There, water flowed safely into public reservoirs. When the pipeline encountered rivers or gorges, the builders threw arches over them, allowing them to maintain the same gentle slope and maintain a continuous flow of water.

To ensure that the angle of incidence of water remained constant, surveyors again resorted to thunder and horobath, as well as a diopter that measured horizontal angles. Again, the main burden of work fell on the shoulders of the troops. In the middle of the 2nd century AD. one military engineer was asked to understand the difficulties encountered during the construction of the aqueduct in Salda (in present-day Algeria). Two groups of workers began to dig a tunnel in the hill, moving towards each other with opposite sides. The engineer soon realized what was going on. “I measured both tunnels,” he later wrote, “and found that the sum of their lengths exceeded the width of the hill.” The tunnels simply did not meet. He found a way out of the situation by drilling a well between the tunnels and connecting them, so that the water began to flow as it should. The city honored the engineer with a monument.

Internal situation of the Roman Empire

The further strengthening of the external power of the Roman Republic was simultaneously accompanied by a deep internal crisis. Such a significant territory could no longer be governed in the old way, that is, with the organization of power characteristic of a city-state. In the ranks of the Roman military leaders, commanders emerged who claimed to have full power, like the ancient Greek tyrants or the Hellenic rulers in the Middle East. The first of these rulers was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who captured in 82 BC. e. Rome and became an absolute dictator. Sulla's enemies were mercilessly killed according to lists (proscriptions) prepared by the dictator himself. In 79 BC. e. Sulla voluntarily renounced power, but this could no longer return him to his previous control. A long period of civil wars began in the Roman Republic.

External situation of the Roman Empire

Meanwhile, the stable development of the empire was threatened not only by external enemies and ambitious politicians fighting for power. Periodically, slave uprisings broke out on the territory of the republic. The largest such rebellion was the performance led by the Thracian Spartacus, which lasted almost three years (from 73 to 71 BC). The rebels were defeated only by the combined efforts of the three most skilled commanders of Rome at that time - Marcus Licinius Crassus, Marcus Licinius Lucullus and Gnaeus Pompey.

Later, Pompey, famous for his victories in the East over the Armenians and the Pontic king Mithridates VI, entered into a battle for supreme power in the republic with another famous military leader, Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar from 58 to 49 BC. e. managed to capture the territories of the northern neighbors of the Roman Republic, the Gauls, and even carried out the first invasion of the British Isles. In 49 BC. e. Caesar entered Rome, where he was declared a dictator - a military ruler with unlimited rights. In 46 BC. e. in the battle of Pharsalus (Greece) he defeated Pompey, his main rival. And in 45 BC. e. in Spain, under Munda, he crushed the last obvious political opponents - the sons of Pompey, Gnaeus the Younger and Sextus. At the same time, Caesar managed to enter into an alliance with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, effectively subjugating her huge country authorities.

However, in 44 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar was killed by a group of Republican conspirators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Civil wars in the republic continued. Now their main participants were Caesar's closest associates - Mark Antony and Gaius Octavian. First, they destroyed Caesar’s killers together, and later they began to fight each other. Antony was supported by the Egyptian queen Cleopatra during this last stage of the civil wars in Rome. However, in 31 BC. e. In the Battle of Cape Actium, the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated by the ships of Octavian. The Queen of Egypt and her ally committed suicide, and Octavian, finally to the Roman Republic, became the unlimited ruler of a giant power that united almost the entire Mediterranean under his rule.

Octavian, in 27 BC. e. who took the name Augustus “blessed”, is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, although this title itself at that time meant only the supreme commander in chief who won a significant victory. Officially, no one abolished the Roman Republic, and Augustus preferred to be called princeps, that is, the first among senators. And yet, under Octavian’s successors, the republic began to more and more acquire the features of a monarchy, closer in its organization to the eastern despotic states.

The empire reached its highest foreign policy power under Emperor Trajan, who in 117 AD. e. conquered part of the lands of Rome's most powerful enemy in the east - the Parthian state. However, after the death of Trajan, the Parthians managed to return the captured territories and soon went on the offensive. Already under Trajan's successor, Emperor Hadrian, the empire was forced to switch to defensive tactics, building powerful defensive ramparts on its borders.

It was not only the Parthians who worried the Roman Empire; Incursions by barbarian tribes from the north and east became more and more frequent, in battles with which the Roman army often suffered severe defeats. Later, Roman emperors even allowed certain groups of barbarians to settle on the territory of the empire, provided that they guarded the borders from other hostile tribes.

In 284, the Roman Emperor Diocletian carried out an important reform that finally transformed the former Roman Republic into an imperial state. From now on, even the emperor began to be called differently - “dominus” (“lord”), and a complex ritual, borrowed from the eastern rulers, was introduced at court. At the same time, the empire was divided into two parts - Eastern and Western, at the head of each of which was a special ruler who received title of Augustus. He was assisted by a deputy called Caesar. After some time, Augustus had to transfer power to Caesar, and he himself would retire. This more flexible system, along with improvements in provincial government, meant that this great state continued to exist for another 200 years.

In the 4th century. Christianity became the dominant religion in the empire, which also contributed to strengthening the internal unity of the state. Since 394, Christianity is already the only permitted religion in the empire. However, if the Eastern Roman Empire remained a fairly strong state, the Western one weakened under the blows of the barbarians. Several times (410 and 455) barbarian tribes captured and ravaged Rome, and in 476 the leader of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, overthrew the last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and declared himself ruler of Italy.

And although the Eastern Roman Empire survived as a single country, and in 553 even annexed the entire territory of Italy, it was still a completely different state. It is no coincidence that historians prefer to call him and consider his fate separately from history of ancient Rome.

Empire
List of emperors
Principate
Yulio-Claudian Dynasty
Flavian Dynasty
Antonine Dynasty
Severan Dynasty
Crisis of the 3rd century
Dominant
Western Roman Empire

Map of the Roman Empire from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia

Periodization of the history of the Roman Empire

The periodization of the history of the Roman Empire varies depending on the approach. Thus, when considering the state-legal structure, two main stages are usually distinguished:

Having thus determined his attitude towards the Senate, Octavian resigned his title as commander-in-chief for life and only at the insistence of the Senate again accepted this power for a period of 10 years, after which it was extended for the same period. With proconsular power, he gradually combined the power of other republican magistrates - tribunic power (from AD), the power of the censor (praefectura morum) and the chief pontiff. His power thus had a dual character: it consisted of a republican magistracy in relation to the Romans and a military imperium in relation to the provinces. Octavian was, so to speak, president of the Senate and emperor in one person. Both of these elements merged in the honorary title of Augustus - “revered” - which was assigned to him by the Senate in the city. This title also contains a religious connotation.

However, in this regard, Augustus showed great moderation. He allowed the sixth month to be named after him, but did not want to allow his deification in Rome, content with only the designation divi filius (“son of the divine Julius”). Only outside Rome did he allow temples to be built in honor of him, and then only in conjunction with Rome (Roma et Augustus), and to establish a special priestly college - the Augustals. The power of Augustus differs so significantly from the power of subsequent emperors that it is designated in history by a special term - the principate. The nature of the principate as a dualistic power appears especially clearly when considering Augustus’s relationship with the Senate. Gaius Julius Caesar showed patronizing arrogance and some disdain towards the Senate. Augustus not only restored the Senate and helped many individual senators lead a lifestyle befitting their high position - he directly shared power with the Senate. All provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial. The first category included all the finally pacified regions - their rulers, with the rank of proconsuls, were still appointed by lot in the Senate and remained under its control, but had only civil power and did not have troops at their disposal. The provinces in which troops were stationed and where war could be fought were left under the direct authority of Augustus and the legates appointed by him, with the rank of propraetors.

In accordance with this, the financial administration of the empire was also divided: the aerarium (treasury) remained under the authority of the Senate, but along with it, the imperial treasury (fiscus) arose, into which revenues from the imperial provinces went. Augustus’s attitude towards the national assembly was simpler. The comitia formally exist under Augustus, but their electoral power passes to the emperor, legally - half, in fact - entirely. The judicial power of the comitia belongs to the judicial institutions or to the emperor, as the representative of the tribunate, and their legislative activity belongs to the Senate. The extent to which the comitia lost their significance under Augustus is evident from the fact that they quietly disappeared under his successor, leaving a trace only in the theory of popular supremacy as the basis of imperial power - a theory that outlived the Roman and Byzantine Empire and passed, together with Roman law, to the Middle Ages.

Augustus's domestic policy was conservative-national in nature. Caesar gave the provincials wide access to Rome. Augustus took care to admit only completely benign elements into citizenship and into the Senate. For Caesar, and especially for Mark Antony, granting citizenship rights was a source of income. But Augustus, in his own words, was rather ready to allow “the treasury to suffer damage rather than lower the honor of Roman citizenship,” and according to this, he even took away from many the right of Roman citizenship that had been previously granted to them. This policy gave rise to new legislative measures for the manumission of slaves, which had previously been left entirely at the discretion of the master. “Complete freedom” (magna et justa libertas), with which the right of citizenship was still associated, according to Augustan law could be granted only under certain conditions and under the control of a special commission of senators and equestrians. If these conditions were not met, liberation was given only by the Latin right of citizenship, and slaves, subjected to disgraceful punishments, fell only into the category of provincial subjects.

Augustus made sure that the number of citizens was known, and renewed the census, which had almost fallen into disuse. In the city, there were 4,063,000 citizens capable of bearing arms, and 19 years later - 4,163,000. Augustus retained the deep-rooted custom of supporting impoverished citizens at state expense and sending citizens to colonies. But the subject of his special concerns was Rome itself - its improvement and decoration. He also wanted to revive the spiritual strength of the people, a strong family life and simplicity of morals. He restored temples that had fallen into disrepair and issued laws to put a limit to loose morals, to encourage marriage and the raising of children (Leges Juliae and Papia Poppeae, 9 AD). Special tax privileges were given to those who had three sons(jus trium liberorum).

Under him, a sharp turn took place in the fate of the provinces: from the estates of Rome they became parts of the state body (membra partesque imperii). The proconsuls, who were previously sent to the province for feeding (i.e., administration), are now assigned a certain salary and their period of stay in the province is extended. Previously, the provinces were only the subject of extortions in favor of Rome. Now, on the contrary, they are given subsidies from Rome. Augustus rebuilds provincial cities, pays off their debts, and comes to their aid in times of disaster. The state administration is still in its infancy - the emperor has little means to collect information about the situation in the provinces and therefore considers it necessary to personally become acquainted with the state of affairs. Augustus visited all the provinces except Africa and Sardinia, and spent many years traveling around them. He arranged a postal service for the needs of the administration - a column was placed in the center of the empire (at the Forum), from which distances were calculated along the numerous roads leading from Rome to the outskirts.

The Republic did not know a standing army - the soldiers swore allegiance to the commander who called them under the banner for a year, and later - “until the end of the campaign.” From Augustus the power of the commander-in-chief becomes lifelong, the army becomes permanent. Military service is determined at 20 years, after which the “veteran” receives the right to honorable leave and to be provided with money or land. Troops not needed within the state are stationed along the borders. In Rome there is a selected detachment of 6,000 people, recruited from Roman citizens (praetorians), 3,000 praetorians are located in Italy. The remaining troops are stationed along the borders. Of the huge number of legions formed during the civil wars, Augustus retained 25 (3 died during the defeat of Varus). Of these, there were 8 legions in upper and lower Germany (regions on the left bank of the Rhine), 6 in the Danube regions, 4 in Syria, 2 in Egypt and Africa, and 3 in Spain. Each legion consisted of 5,000 soldiers. A military dictatorship, no longer fitting within the framework of republican institutions and not limited to the provinces, is established in Rome - in front of it the Senate loses its governmental significance and the people's assembly completely disappears. The place of comitia is taken by legions - they serve as an instrument of power, but they are always ready to be a source of power for those whom they favor.

Augustus closed the third concentric circle of Roman rule in the south. Egypt, pressed by Syria, held on to Rome and thereby avoided annexation by Syria, and then maintained independence thanks to its queen Cleopatra, who managed to charm Caesar and Mark Antony. The aged queen failed to achieve the same in relation to the cold-blooded Augustus, and Egypt became a Roman province. Likewise, in the western part of North Africa, Roman rule was finally established under Augustus, who conquered Mauritania (Morocco) and gave it to the Numidian king Yuba, and annexed Numidia to the province of Africa. Roman pickets protected culturally occupied areas from desert nomads along the entire line from Morocco to Cyrenaica on the borders of Egypt. Julio-Claudian dynasty: heirs of Augustus (14-69) Flaws state system, created by Augustus, were discovered immediately after his death. He left unresolved the conflict of interests and rights between his adopted son Tiberius and his own grandson, a worthless youth, imprisoned on the island by him. Tiberius (14-37), based on his merits, intelligence and experience, had the right to first place in the state. He did not want to be a despot: rejecting the title of master (dominus), with which flatterers addressed him, he said that he was a master only for slaves, for provincials - emperor, for citizens - citizen. The provinces found in him, as his haters themselves admitted, a caring and efficient ruler - it was not without reason that he told his proconsuls that the good shepherd shears the sheep, but does not skin them. But in Rome the Senate stood before him, full of republican traditions and memories of past greatness, and relations between the emperor and the Senate were soon spoiled by flatterers and informers. Accidents and tragic entanglements in the family of Tiberius embittered the emperor, and then began the bloody drama of political trials, the “unholy war (impia bella) in the Senate,” so passionately and artistically depicted in the immortal work of Tacitus, who branded the monstrous old man with shame on the island of Capri. In place of Tiberius, last minutes whom we do not know exactly, the son of his nephew, the popular and mourned Germanicus, was proclaimed - Caligula (37-41), a rather handsome young man, but soon mad with power and reaching delusions of grandeur and frenzied cruelty. The sword of the praetorian tribune put an end to the life of this madman, who intended to place his statue in the Jerusalem temple to be worshiped with Jehovah. The Senate breathed freely and dreamed of a republic, but the Praetorians gave it a new emperor in the person of Claudius (41 - 54), the brother of Germanicus. Claudius was practically a toy in the hands of his two wives - Messalina and Agrippina - who covered the Roman woman of that time with shame. His image, however, is distorted by political satire - and under Claudius (not without his participation) both external and internal development empires. Claudius was born in Lyon and therefore especially took the interests of Gaul and the Gauls to heart: in the Senate he personally defended the petition of the inhabitants of northern Gaul, who asked to make honorary positions in Rome available to them. Claudius converted the kingdom of Cotys into the province of Thrace in 46, and made Mauretania a Roman province. Under him, the military occupation of Britain took place, which was finally conquered by Agricola. Intrigues, and perhaps even crimes, of Agrippina opened the way to power for her son, Nero (54 - 68). And in this case, as almost always in the first two centuries of the empire, the principle of heredity brought harm to it. There was a complete discrepancy between the personal character and tastes of the young Nero and his position in the state. As a result of Nero's life, a military rebellion broke out; the emperor committed suicide, and in the following year civil war Three emperors were replaced and died - Galba, Otho, Vitellius. Flavian Dynasty (69-96) Power finally went to the commander-in-chief in the war against the rebel Jews, Vespasian. In the person of Vespasian (70 - 79), the empire received the organizer it needed after internal unrest and uprisings. He suppressed the Batavian uprising, settled relations with the Senate and put things in order state economy, being himself an example of ancient Roman simplicity of morals. In the person of his son, Titus (79 - 81), the destroyer of Jerusalem, the imperial power surrounded itself with an aura of philanthropy, and Vespasian's youngest son, Domitian (81 - 96), again served as confirmation that the principle of heredity did not bring happiness to Rome. Domitian imitated Tiberius, fought on the Rhine and Danube, although not always successfully, was at enmity with the Senate and died as a result of a conspiracy. Five Good Emperors - Antonines (96-180) Roman Empire under Trajan The consequence of this conspiracy was the calling to power not of a general, but of a man from among the Senate, Nerva (96 - 98), who, having adopted Ulpius Trajan (98 - 117), gave Rome one of its best emperors. Trajan was from Spain; his rise is a significant sign of the social process taking place in the empire. After the rule of two patrician families, the Julius and the Claudii, the plebeian Galba appears on the Roman throne, then the emperors from the municipalities of Italy and, finally, a provincial from Spain. Trajan reveals a series of emperors who made the second century the best era of the empire: all of them - Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), Marcus Aurelius (161-180) - were of provincial origin (Spanish, except Antoninus, who was from southern Gaul); they all owe their rise to the adoption of their predecessor. Trajan became famous as a commander, and the empire reached its greatest extent under him. Trajan expanded the borders of the empire to the north, where Dacia was conquered and colonized, from the Carpathians to the Dniester, and to the east, where four provinces were formed: Armenia (minor - the upper reaches of the Euphrates). Mesopotamia (lower Euphrates), Assyria (Tigris region) and Arabia (southeast of Palestine). This was done not so much for conquest purposes, but in order to push barbarian tribes and desert nomads away from the empire, which threatened it with constant invasion. This is evident from the careful care with which Trajan and his successor Hadrian, to strengthen the borders, poured huge ramparts, with stone bastions and towers, the remains of which have survived to this day - in the north. England, in Moldavia (Trajan's Val), limes (Pfahlgraben) from the Rhine (in northern Nassau) through the Main and southern Germany to the Danube. The peace-loving Adrian took up reforms in the administration and in the field of law. Like Augustus, Hadrian spent many years visiting the provinces; he did not disdain to take on the position of archon in Athens and personally drew up a project for city government for them. Moving with the times, he was more enlightened than Augustus, and stood at the level of contemporary education, which then reached its apogee. Just as Hadrian, with his financial reforms, earned the nickname “enricher of the world,” so his successor Antoninus was nicknamed “the father of the human race” for his care of provinces subject to disasters. The highest place in the ranks of the Caesars is occupied by Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed the philosopher; we can judge him by more than just epithets - we know his thoughts and plans in his own presentation. How great was the progress of political thought that took place in the best people R. since the fall of the republic, this is most clearly evidenced by his significant words, “I carried in my soul the image of a free state in which everything is governed on the basis of the same laws for all and equal rights for all.” But even this philosopher on the throne had to experience for himself that the power of the Roman emperor was a personal military dictatorship; He was to spend many years in a defensive war on the Danube, where he died. After four emperors who reigned in adulthood, the throne again went, by right of inheritance, to a young man, and again to an unworthy one. Having left control of the state to his favorites, Commodus (180-193), like Nero, craved laurels not on the battlefield, but in the circus and amphitheater: but his tastes were not artistic, like Nero’s, but gladiatorial. He died at the hands of the conspirators. Severan Dynasty (193-235) Neither the protege of the conspirators, Prefect Pertinax, nor the senator Didius Julian, who bought the purple from the Praetorians for enormous money, retained power; The Illyrian legions became jealous of their comrades and proclaimed their commander, Septimius Severus, emperor. Septimius was from Leptis in Africa; in his pronunciation one could hear the African, just as in the speech of Adrian - the Spaniard. His rise marks the success of Roman culture in Africa. The traditions of the Punians were still alive here, strangely merging with the Roman ones. If the finely educated Hadrian restored the tomb of Epaminondas, then Septimius, as legend says, built the mausoleum of Hannibal. But the Punic now fought for Rome. The neighbors of Rome again felt the heavy hand of the victorious emperor; Roman eagles circled the borders from Babylon on the Euphrates and Ctesiphon on the Tigris to York in the far north, where Septimius died in 211. Septimius Severus, protege of the legions, was the first soldier on the throne of the Caesars. The brute energy that he brought with him from his African homeland degenerated into savagery in his son Caracalla, who seized autocracy by murdering his brother. Caracalla showed his African sympathies even more clearly by placing statues of Hannibal everywhere. Rome owes him, however, its magnificent baths (The Baths of Caracalla). Like his father, he tirelessly defended Roman lands on two fronts - on the Rhine and on the Euphrates. His unbridled behavior sparked a conspiracy among the military around him, of which he fell victim. Issues of law were of such importance in Rome at that time that it was to the soldier Caracalla that Rome owed one of its greatest civil feats - granting all provincials the right of Roman citizenship. That this was not just a fiscal measure is clear from the benefits granted to the Egyptians. Since the conquest of Cleopatra's kingdom by Augustus, this country has been in a particularly disenfranchised position. Septimius Severus returned self-government to Alexandria, and Caracalla not only granted Alexandrians the right to hold public office in Rome, but also introduced an Egyptian to the Senate for the first time. The rise of the Punes to the throne of the Caesars entailed the calling to power of their fellow tribesmen from Syria. The sister of Caracalla's widow, Mesa, succeeded in removing Caracalla's murderer from the throne and replacing him with her grandson, known in history by the Semitic name Elagabalus Heliogabalus: this was the name of the Syrian sun deity. His accession represents a strange episode in the history of Roman emperors: it was the establishment of an eastern theocracy in Rome. But a priest could not be imagined at the head of the Roman legions, and Heliogabalus was soon replaced by his cousin, Alexander Severus. The accession of the Sassanids in place of the Parthian kings and the resulting religious and national renewal of the Persian east forced the young emperor to spend many years on campaigns; but how important the religious element was for him is evidenced by his deity (Lararium), which contained images of all the gods who were worshiped within the empire, including Christ. Alexander Sever died near Mainz as a victim of soldier's self-will. Crisis of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century (235-284) Then an event occurred that showed to what extent the process of assimilation of Roman and provincial elements was rapidly taking place in the troops, the most vital element of the then Rome, and how close the hour of barbarian domination over Rome was. The legions proclaimed Emperor Maximin, the son of a Goth and an Alan, who was a shepherd and owed his rapid military career to his heroic physique and courage. This premature triumph of northern barbarism caused a reaction in Africa, where the proconsul Gordian was proclaimed emperor. After bloody clashes, power remained in the hands of the young man, the grandson of Gordian. While he was successfully repelling the Persians in the east, he was overthrown by another barbarian in the Roman military service- Philip the Arab, the son of a robber sheikh in the Syro-Arabian desert. This Semite was destined to magnificently celebrate the millennium of Rome in 248, but he did not reign for long: his legate, Decius, was forced by soldiers to take power from him. Decius was of Roman origin, but his family had long been exiled to Pannonia, where he was born. Under Decius, two new enemies discovered their strength, undermining the Roman Empire - the Goths, who invaded Thrace from across the Danube, and Christianity. Decius directed his energy against them, but his death in the battle with the Goths was already next year(251) delivered Christians from his cruel edicts. Power was seized by his comrade, Valerian, who accepted his son Gallienus as co-ruler: Valerian died in captivity of the Persians, and Gallienus held out until 268. The Roman Empire was already so shaken that entire regions were separated from it under the autonomous control of local commanders-in-chief (for example, Gaul and the kingdom of Palmyra in the East). The main stronghold of Rome at this time were generals of Illyrian origin: where the danger from the Goths forced the defenders of Rome to rally, the most capable commanders and administrators were elected one after another, at a meeting of commanders: Claudius II, Aurelian, Probus and Carus. Aurelian conquered Gaul and the kingdom of Zenobia and restored the former borders of the empire; He also surrounded Rome with a new wall, which had long since grown out of the framework of the walls of Servius Tullius and became an open, defenseless city. All these proteges of the legions soon died at the hands of indignant soldiers: Probus, for example, because, caring for the welfare of his native province, he forced the soldiers to plant vineyards on the Rhine and Danube. Tetrarchy and dominance (285-324) Finally, by decision of the officers in Chalcedon, in 285, Diocletian was enthroned, worthily completing the series of pagan emperors of Rome. Diocletian's transformations completely changed the character and forms of the Roman Empire: they summed up the previous historical process and laid the foundation for a new political order. Diocletian consigns the Augustan Principate to the archives of history and creates a Roman-Byzantine autocracy. This Dalmatian, having put on the crown of the eastern kings, finally dethroned royal Rome. Within the chronological framework of the history of the emperors outlined above, the greatest historical revolution of a cultural nature gradually took place: the provinces conquered Rome. In the state sphere, this is expressed by the disappearance of dualism in the person of the sovereign, who, in the organization of Augustus, was a princeps for the Romans, and an emperor for the provincials. This dualism is gradually being lost, and the military power of the emperor absorbs the civil republican magistracy of the principate. While the tradition of Rome was still alive, the idea of ​​the principate persisted; but when, at the end of the third century, the imperial power fell to an African, the military element in the power of the emperor completely supplanted the Roman heritage. At the same time, the frequent intrusion into public life of the Roman legions, which invested their commanders with imperial power, humiliated this power, made it accessible to every ambitious person and deprived it of strength and duration. The vastness of the empire and the simultaneous wars along its entire border did not allow the emperor to concentrate all military forces under his direct command; legions at the other end of the empire could freely proclaim their favorite emperor in order to receive the usual “grant” of money from him. This prompted Diocletian to reorganize imperial power on the basis of collegiality and hierarchy. Diocletian's reforms Tetrarchy The emperor, in the rank of Augustus, received a companion in another Augustus, who ruled the other half of the empire; under each of these Augustus there was a Caesar, who was the co-ruler and governor of his Augustus. This decentralization of imperial power gave it the opportunity to directly manifest itself in four points of the empire, and the hierarchical system in the relations between the Caesars and Augusti united their interests and gave a legal outlet to the ambitions of the commanders-in-chief. Diocletian, as the elder Augustus, chose Nicomedia in Asia Minor as his residence, the second Augustus (Maximinian Marcus Aurelius Valerius) - Milan. Rome not only ceased to be the center of imperial power, but this center moved away from it and was moved to the east; Rome did not even retain second place in the empire and had to cede it to the city of the Insubrians it had once defeated - Milan. The new government moved away from Rome not only topographically: it became even more alien to it in spirit. The title of master (dominus), which had previously been used by slaves in relation to their masters, became the official title of the emperor; the words sacer and saciatissimus - most sacred - became the official epithets of his power; kneeling replaced military honor: the golden robe studded with precious stones and the white diadem of the emperor indicated that the character of the new government was more strongly influenced by the influence of neighboring Persia than by the tradition of the Roman Principate. Senate The disappearance of state dualism associated with the concept of the principate was also accompanied by a change in the position and character of the Senate. The Principate, as the lifelong presidency of the Senate, although it represented a certain contrast to the Senate, was at the same time maintained by the Senate. Meanwhile, the Roman Senate gradually ceased to be what it had been before. He was once a corporation serving the aristocracy of the city of Rome and always resented the tide of elements alien to him; once Senator Appius Claudius swore to stab the first Latin who dared to enter the Senate; under Caesar, Cicero and his friends made jokes at the senators from Gaul, and when at the beginning of the 3rd century the Egyptian Keraunos entered the Roman Senate (history has preserved his name), there was no one in Rome to be indignant. It couldn't be any other way. The richest of the provincials began to move to Rome long ago, buying up palaces, gardens and estates of the impoverished Roman aristocracy. Already under Augustus, the price of real estate in Italy, as a result, rose significantly. This new aristocracy began to fill the Senate. The time came when the Senate began to be called “the beauty of all provinces,” “the color of the whole world,” “the color of the human race.” From an institution that under Tiberius constituted a counterweight to imperial power, the Senate became imperial. This aristocratic institution finally underwent a transformation in a bureaucratic spirit - it broke up into classes and ranks, marked by ranks (illiustres, spectabiles, clarissimi, etc.). Finally, it split into two - the Roman and Constantinople Senate: but this division was no longer significant for the empire, since the state significance of the Senate passed to another institution - the council of the sovereign or consistory. Administration Even more characteristic of the Roman Empire than the history of the Senate is the process that took place in the field of administration. Under the influence of imperial power, a new type of state is being created here, replacing the city power - city government, which was Republican Rome. This goal is achieved by bureaucratizing management, replacing the magistrate with an official. The magistrate was a citizen invested with power for a certain period and carrying out his duties as an honorary position. He had a well-known staff of bailiffs, scribes (apparitores) and servants. These were people he invited or even just his slaves and freedmen. Such magistrates are gradually being replaced in the empire by people who are in the constant service of the emperor, receiving a certain salary from him and going through a certain career, in a hierarchical order. The beginning of the coup dates back to the time of Augustus, who appointed salaries to the proconsuls and propraetors. In particular, Adrian did a lot to develop and improve the administration in the empire; under him, the bureaucratization of the court of the emperor, who previously ruled his provinces through freedmen, took place; Hadrian raised his courtiers to the level of state dignitaries. The number of servants of the sovereign is gradually growing: accordingly, the number of their ranks is increasing and a hierarchical system of management is developing, finally reaching the completeness and complexity that it represents in the “State Calendar of Ranks and Titles of the Empire” - Notitia dignitatum. As the bureaucratic apparatus develops, the entire appearance of the country changes: it becomes more monotonous, smoother. At the beginning of the empire, all the provinces, in relation to government, differ sharply from Italy and present great diversity among themselves; the same diversity is noticed within each province; it includes autonomous, privileged and subject cities, sometimes vassal kingdoms or semi-wild tribes that have preserved their primitive system. Little by little, these differences are blurred and under Diocletian, partly it is revealed, partly a radical revolution is carried out, similar to the one that was carried out French revolution 1789, which replaced the provinces, with their historical, national and topographical individuality, with monotonous administrative units - departments. Transforming the administration of the Roman Empire, Diocletian divides it into 12 dioceses under the control of individual vicars, that is, the emperor's governors; each diocese is divided into smaller provinces than before (ranging from 4 to 12, for a total of 101), under the control of officials of different names - correctores, consulares, praesides, etc. As a result of this bureaucratization, the former dualism between Italy and provinces; Italy itself is divided into administrative units, and from Roman land (ager romanus) becomes a simple province. Only Rome still remains outside this administrative network, which is very significant for its future fate. The bureaucratization of power is also closely related to its centralization. This centralization is especially interesting to observe in the field of legal proceedings. In a republican administration, the praetor independently creates the court; he is not subject to appeal and, using the right to issue an edict, he himself establishes the norms that he intends to adhere to in court. At the end of the historical process we are considering, an appeal is established from the praetor's court to the emperor, who distributes complaints, according to the nature of the cases, among his prefects. Thus the imperial power actually takes over the judicial power; but it also appropriates to itself the very creativity of law that the court applies to life. After the abolition of the comitia, legislative power passed to the Senate, but next to it the emperor issued his orders; over time, he arrogated to himself the power to make laws; Only the form of publishing them through a rescript from the emperor to the Senate has been preserved from antiquity. In this establishment of monarchical absolutism, in this strengthening of centralization and bureaucracy, one cannot help but see the triumph of the provinces over Rome and at the same time the creative power of the Roman spirit in the region government controlled. Right The same triumph of the conquered and the same creativity of the R. spirit can be noted in the field of law. In ancient Rome, law had a strictly national character: it was the exclusive property of some “quirites,” that is, Roman citizens, and therefore was called quirite. Nonresidents were tried in Rome by the praetor “for foreigners” (peregrinus); the same system was then applied to the provincials, of whom the Roman praetor became the supreme judge. The praetors thus became the creators of a new law - the law not of the Roman people, but of peoples in general (jus gentium). In creating this law, Roman jurists discovered the general principles of law, the same for all peoples, and began to study them and be guided by them. At the same time, under the influence of the Greek philosophical schools, especially the Stoic one, they rose to the consciousness of natural law (jus naturale), emanating from reason, from that “higher law”, which, in the words of Cicero, arose “before the dawn of time, before the existence of any or the written law or constitution of any state.” Praetorial law became the bearer of the principles of reason and justice (aequitas), as opposed to the literal interpretation and routine of Quirite law. The city praetor (urbanus) could not remain outside the influence of praetorian law, which became synonymous with natural law and natural reason. Obliged to “come to the aid of civil law, supplement it and correct it for the sake of public benefit,” he began to imbue himself with the principles of the law of peoples, and, finally, the law of provincial praetors - jus honorarium - became “the living voice of Roman law.” This was the time of its heyday, the era of the great jurists of the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaius, Papinian, Paul, Ulpian and Modestinus, which lasted until Alexander Severus and gave Roman law that strength, depth and subtlety of thought that prompted peoples to see in it “written reason” , and the great mathematician and lawyer, Leibniz - compare it with mathematics. Roman ideals Just as the “strict” law (jus strictum) of the Romans, under the influence of the law of peoples, is imbued with the idea of ​​universal reason and justice, in the Roman Empire the meaning of Rome and the idea of ​​Roman dominion are inspired. Obeying the wild instinct of the people, greedy for land and booty, the Romans of the Republic did not need to justify their conquests. Livy also finds it completely natural for a people descended from Mars to conquer other nations, and invites the latter to obediently demolish Roman power. But already under Augustus, Virgil, reminding his fellow citizens that their purpose is to rule over peoples (tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento), gives this rule a moral purpose - to establish peace and spare the conquered (parcere subjectis). The idea of ​​the Roman peace (pax romana) henceforth became the motto of Roman rule. It is exalted by Pliny, glorified by Plutarch, calling Rome “an anchor that forever sheltered in the harbor a world long overwhelmed and wandering without a helmsman.” Comparing the power of Rome to cement, the Greek moralist sees the significance of Rome in the fact that it organized a pan-human society amidst the fierce struggle of people and nations. This same idea of ​​the Roman world was given official expression by Emperor Trajan in the inscription on the temple he erected on the Euphrates, when the border of the empire was again pushed back to this river. But the importance of Rome soon rose even higher. Bringing peace among the peoples, Rome called them to civil order and the benefits of civilization, giving them wide scope and without violating their individuality. He ruled, according to the poet, “not only with weapons, but with laws.” Moreover, he gradually called on all peoples to participate in power. The highest praise of the Romans and a worthy assessment of their best emperor lies in the wonderful words with which the Greek orator, Aristides, addressed Marcus Aurelius and his comrade Verus: “With you, everything is open to everyone. Anyone who is worthy of a master's degree or public trust ceases to be considered a foreigner. The name of the Roman ceased to belong to one city, but became the property of the human race. You have established the management of the world as if it were one family.” It is not surprising, therefore, that in the Roman Empire the idea of ​​Rome as a common fatherland appeared early. It is remarkable that this idea was brought to Rome by immigrants from Spain, which gave Rome its best emperors. Already Seneca, Nero’s tutor and during his childhood the ruler of the empire, exclaims: “Rome is, as it were, our common fatherland.” This expression was then adopted, in a more positive sense, by Roman jurists. “Rome is our common fatherland”: this, by the way, is the basis for the statement that someone expelled from one city cannot live in Rome, since “R. - the fatherland of all." It is clear why R.'s fear of dominion began to give way among the provincials to love for Rome and some kind of worship before it. It is impossible to read without emotion the poem of the Greek woman poet Erinna (the only one that has come down to us from her), in which she greets “Roma, daughter of Ares,” and promises her eternity - or a farewell to Rome to the Gaul Rutilius, who kissed on his knees, with tears before our eyes, “sacred stones” of R., for the fact that he “created a single fatherland for many peoples”, for the fact that “Roman power became a blessing for those conquered against their will”, for the fact that “Rome turned the world into a harmonious community (urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat) and not only ruled, but, more importantly, was worthy of rule.” Much more significant than this gratitude of the provincials who bless Rome for the fact that it, in the words of the poet Prudentius, “threw the vanquished into fraternal fetters,” is another feeling caused by the consciousness that Rome has become a common fatherland. Since then, as Am. Thierry, “a small community on the banks of the Tiber has grown into a universal community,” since the idea of ​​Rome expands and is inspired and Roman patriotism takes on a moral and cultural character, love for Rome becomes love for the human race and the ideal that binds it. Already the poet Lucan, Seneca’s nephew, gives this feeling a strong expression, speaking of “sacred love for the world” (sacer orbis amor) and glorifying “the citizen convinced that he was born into the world not for himself, but for all this world.” . This common consciousness of a cultural connection between all Roman citizens gives rise in the 3rd century to the concept of romanitas, as opposed to barbarism. The task of Romulus’s comrades, who took away their neighbors, the Sabines, their wives and fields, thus turns into a peaceful universal task. In the field of ideals and principles proclaimed by poets, philosophers and lawyers, Rome reaches its highest development and becomes a model for subsequent generations and peoples. He owed this to the interaction of Rome and the provinces; but it was precisely in this process of interaction that the germs of the fall lay. It was prepared from two sides: by transforming itself into the provinces, Rome lost its creative, constructive power, ceased to be a spiritual cement connecting disparate parts; the provinces were too different from each other culturally; the process of assimilation and equalization of rights raised to the surface and often put national or social elements, not yet cultural or standing much below the general level. Cultural transformation Two institutions in particular acted harmfully in this direction: slavery and the army. Slavery produced freedmen, the most corrupt part of ancient society, who combined the vices of “slave” and “master” and were devoid of any principles and traditions; and since these were capable and necessary people for the former master, they played a fatal role everywhere, especially at the court of the emperors. The army accepted representatives of physical strength and brute energy and brought them quickly - especially during unrest and soldier uprisings to the pinnacle of power, accustoming society to violence and admiration for force, and the rulers to disdain the law. Another danger threatened from the political side: the evolution of the Roman Empire consisted in the creation of a single coherent state from regions of heterogeneous structure, united by Rome with weapons. This goal was achieved by the development of a special government body - the world's first bureaucracy, which kept multiplying and specializing. But, with the increasingly military nature of power, with the increasing predominance of uncultured elements, with the developing desire for unification and equalization, the initiative of the ancient centers and centers of culture began to weaken. This historical process reveals a time when the dominion of Rome had already lost the character of the crude exploitation of the republican era, but had not yet assumed the dead forms of the later empire. The second century is generally recognized as the best era of the Roman Empire, and this is usually attributed to the personal merits of the emperors who reigned then; but it is not just this accident that should explain the significance of the era of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, but the balance established then between opposing elements and aspirations - between Rome and the provinces, between the republican tradition of freedom and the monarchical order. It was a time that can be characterized by the beautiful words of Tacitus, who praises Nerva for “being able to connect things before ( olim) incompatible ( dissociabiles) - principle and freedom." In the 3rd century. this has become impossible. Amidst the anarchy caused by the willfulness of the legions, a bureaucratic management, the crown of which was the Diocletian system, with its desire to regulate everything, define the duties of everyone and chain him to his place: the farmer - to his “block”, the curial - to his curia, the artisan - to his workshop, just as the edict of Diocletian to every product the price was indicated. It was then that the colonat arose, this transition from ancient slavery to medieval serfdom; the former division of people into political categories - Roman citizens, allies and provincials - was replaced by a division into social classes. At the same time, the end of the ancient world came, which was held together by two concepts - an independent community ( polis) and citizen. The polis is replaced by a municipality; honorary position ( honos) turns into conscription ( munus); the senator of the local curia or curial becomes a serf of the city, obliged to answer with his property for the lack of taxes until ruin; along with the concept of polis The citizen, who previously could have been a magistrate, a warrior, or a priest, disappears, but now becomes either an official, or a soldier, or a clergyman ( clericus). Meanwhile, the most important revolution in terms of its consequences took place in the Roman Empire - unification on religious grounds (see The Birth of Christianity in the Roman Empire). This revolution was already being prepared on the basis of paganism by uniting the gods into a common pantheon or even through monotheistic ideas; but this unification finally took place on the basis of Christianity. The unification in Christianity went far beyond the boundaries of the political unification familiar to the ancient world: on the one hand, Christianity united the Roman citizen with the slave, on the other hand, the Roman with the barbarian. In view of this, the question naturally arose whether Christianity was the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire. The rationalist Gibbon in the century before last resolved this question in an unconditionally affirmative sense. True, Christians, persecuted by pagan emperors, were averse to the empire; It is also true that after its triumph, persecuting the pagans and splitting into hostile sects, Christianity separated the population of the empire and, calling people from the worldly kingdom to God, distracted them from civil and political interests. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that, having become the religion of the Roman state, Christianity introduced new vitality into it and was the guarantee of spiritual unity, which decaying paganism could not provide. This is proven by the very history of Emperor Constantine, who decorated the shields of his soldiers with the monogram of Christ and thereby accomplished a great historical revolution, which Christian tradition so beautifully symbolized in the vision of the cross with the words: “By this victory.” Constantine I Diocletian's artificial tetrarchy did not last long; The Caesars did not have the patience to wait peacefully for their rise in Augusta. Even during the lifetime of Diocletian, who retired in 305, a war broke out between rivals. Proclaimed Caesar by the British legions in 312, Constantine defeated his rival, the last protege of the Roman Praetorians, Caesar Maxentius, under the walls of Rome. This defeat of Rome opened the way to the triumph of Christianity, with which the further success of the winner was associated. Constantine not only gave Christians freedom of worship in the Roman Empire, but also recognition of their church from outside state power. When the victory at Adrianople in 323 over the Augustus of the East, Licinius, freed Constantine from his last rival, the Christian Church became a new support for his autocracy. Having replaced the tetrarchy of Diocletian with the organization of four prefectures, Constantine completed the administrative transformations of his predecessor in that special political style, which later became known as Byzantine, with numerous court positions and new titles. How much and in what sense the imperial power itself has changed since Diocletian is best evidenced by the Council of Nicaea convened by Constantine. The meaning that the pagan emperor borrowed from the title of “chief pontifex” had a local Roman national character and was insignificant in comparison with the position that Constantine occupied after the adoption of Christianity. The new empire also needed a new capital; it became the city of Constantine. Thus, what was dreamed of by the contemporaries of Caesar and Augustus, which Horace spoke with alarm in his odes, came true: the emergence of a new Rome on far east, successor to the ancient city of Romulus. Constantine's position was so strengthened that he became the founder of the dynasty.

In 454, Emperor Valentinian III executed his brilliant but capricious commander Aetius, and a year later he himself was killed. The next twenty years proved to be a period of political chaos: no less than eight emperors were enthroned and deposed - either on the initiative of the Roman Senate aristocracy, or at the instigation of the Eastern emperor. On August 23, 476, German troops in Italy (which now made up the bulk of the Roman army) elected their commander Odoacer as king and deposed the last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus (Augustulus’s government refused to allocate a third of the lands to the soldiers - that’s exactly how much the Roman “allies” in Gaul received) .

This event marked the end of the Roman Empire in the West. Formally, the entire territory of the empire was now ruled by the eastern emperor Zeno. In fact, Odoacer, hated by the Roman aristocracy and not recognized by Constantinople, became the independent ruler of Italy.

Ostrogoths in Italy

Zeno did not have the opportunity to reconquer Italy, but he still took revenge on Odoacer. The Ostrogoths, defeated and enslaved by the Huns, eventually, like the Visigoths, moved into the Balkan provinces of the empire. In 488, Zeno convinced their leader, Theodoric, to march from Moesia (modern Serbia) to Italy. This was a clever move on the part of the emperor: whoever won in Italy, the Eastern Empire would at least get rid of the last tribe of barbarians that was still in its provinces.

By 493, the Ostrogoths occupied Italy, Odoacer was dead (according to stories, Theodoric himself killed him). Formally, Theodoric, as the emperor's viceroy, received the title of patrician, but in reality he remained as independent as the other barbarian leaders.

Roman Empire in the East: Justinian

The departure of the Ostrogoths to Italy liberated the eastern part of the Roman Empire from the last barbarian tribe that invaded its territory in the 5th century. In the next, VI century. Graeco-Roman civilization once again demonstrated its vitality, and the military and administrative organization of the empire proved remarkably flexible and capable of responding effectively to the demands of the situation. The great cities of the empire - Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea and Jerusalem - did not lose their power. The merchants of these cities continued to outfit ships throughout the Mediterranean and down the Red Sea to East Africa, Ceylon and even further.

The Byzantine (that is, Roman) gold coin - solidus (on which the image of the emperor was minted) - circulated throughout the civilized world, from Ireland to China. Caravans crossed the vast Asian continent along a route equipped with numerous inns. One of these caravans smuggled silkworms out of China, and soon their own silk production flourished in Cyprus and other parts of the empire. For the rich townspeople, life remained much the same as it had been for many centuries. Young people received both classical and religious education at academies and universities. Christianity, which had been under the protection and patronage of the state for three centuries, showed its wealth in hundreds of churches, decorated with luxurious lamps, sculptures and mosaics.

However, Constantinople, the capital of the empire, became the largest and richest city. Mindful of the fate that befell Rome in 410, the emperors surrounded Constantinople with a system of defensive walls with towers that protected it from both land and sea. These walls successfully withstood all attacks until 1204, when the Crusaders treacherously broke into the city and captured it. As before in Rome, so now in Constantinople, the emperors had to pursue a certain policy towards the inhabitants of the huge capital. As before, “bread and circuses” meant a public demonstration of the authorities’ interest in supporting the poorest masses. The fans at the hippodrome (a huge stadium for horse racing, chariot races and baiting of wild animals) were divided into “green” and “blue”. However, these were not just supporters of different teams, but also original parties that differed in political and religious views and were usually at odds. In 532, they united during anti-government riots and terrorized the city for several days. Justinian's advisers strongly recommended that he go into hiding. However, Justinian's wife, Theodora, convinced him to restore order, and the professional soldiers of the commander Belisarius mercilessly dealt with the rebels.

These riots were the last internal crisis of Justinian's reign. He went on to rule the empire as effectively as his predecessors, and even more autocratically, largely thanks to the advice of Empress Theodora. Justinian had complete control over the imperial bureaucracy and imposed taxes at his discretion. As supreme legislator and judge, he initiated the compilation of a code of imperial laws, the famous Corpus juris civilis(Code of Civil Law). In the first of its three parts, Codex Justinianus(Code of Justinian), all the decrees of the emperors from the time of Hadrian (117–138) to 533 were collected. Later edicts were introduced under the name novel lae(New laws). It was this last part of the “corpus” that contained the justification for the absolute power of the emperor. The second part, the Digests, or Pandects, in 50 books, included excerpts from the works and opinions of Roman jurists related to civil and criminal legislation. The third part, Institutions, was an abridged version of the first two parts, that is, a kind of law textbook. Probably no text of a secular nature had such a wide and lasting influence in Europe as Corpus juris civilis. In the subsequent period of the history of the Eastern Empire, it served as a comprehensive and rationally constructed system of legislation and the study of law. But the Code played a much more important role in the West, becoming the basis of canon and ecclesiastical law of the Roman Catholic Church. From the 12th century Justinian's legislation gradually began to dominate secular courts and law schools and eventually almost replaced common law in most European countries. Thanks to Roman law, Justinian's autocracy served as the intellectual basis for the absolutism of Western monarchies in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Even in countries like England, where customary local law has survived, the development of systematic and rational jurisprudence, legal science and legal philosophy would probably have been impossible without the historical model - Corpus juris civilis .

A visible expression of the greatness of the emperor and the Christian church (which was actually headed by the emperor) was the reconstruction of the Church of St. Sophia (Divine Wisdom), which burned down during the riots of 532. Justinian invited the best architects, mathematicians and craftsmen from all over the empire to the capital, who erected the most grandiose and the magnificent temple of Christendom. Even now, its huge flat dome dominates the panorama of Istanbul (the current name of Constantinople). Justinian's court historian Procopius of Caesarea left us a description of the stunning interiors of the temple, written in the characteristic rhetorical style of the time; it allows us to understand the specifics of Byzantine religiosity in the 6th century.

An unusual amount of sunlight penetrates into it, which is also reflected from the marble walls. Indeed, one could say that it is not so much illuminated by the sun from the outside as it shines from the inside - its altar is bathed in such an abundance of light... Its entire ceiling is entirely trimmed with pure gold - which makes its beauty majestic. However, most of all, the light is reflected from the stone surfaces, competing with the shine of gold... Who has enough words to adequately describe the galleries of the female side and the colonnades of the side chapels that surround the temple? Who can describe all the beauty of the columns and colored stones that adorn it? You can imagine that you are in the middle of a meadow, replete with the most beautiful flowers: some of them are distinguished by an amazing purple color, others are green, others are glowing crimson, others are dazzling white, and others, like an artist’s palette, sparkle with a variety of colors. And when a person enters this temple to offer prayer, he immediately realizes that it was not through human strength or human skill, but through the care of God that this creation was born so beautiful. And then his spirit rushes to God and rises, feeling that He cannot be far away, but must willingly remain in the dwelling that He has chosen for Himself 24.

Majestic splendor, softened by beauty, light and divine love - such was the legacy of the emperor, who considered himself God's vicegerent on earth. This largely explains the long existence of the Roman Empire in the East.