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The emergence and development of higher education in the world. Scientific electronic library

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Baltic State Academy of Fishing Fleet

Department " Theoretical Foundations Radio engineering"

In the discipline: introduction to the specialty

on the topic: “History of development higher education in Russia"

Completed:

cadet of the Radio Engineering Faculty R-11

Ponomarev Vasily Vladimirovich

Kaliningrad 2014

Introduction

1. Education since ancient times

1.1 First schools

1.2 First universities

2. The formation of education in Rus'

2.1 Rudiments educational process

2.2 Education in pre-Petrine times

3. Education in Russia in the 17th-19th centuries

3.1 Peter the Great

3.2 Education in the post-Petrine era

4. Modern universities in Russia

4.1 Education in Soviet time

4.2 Russian higher education since 1992

4.3 Best Universities in Russia

Conclusion

List of sources used

Applications

Introduction

Today, one of the most important needs of people is the need for higher education. This does not necessarily mean the desire to become president, but always implies the desire to be an educated, respected person. IN modern world higher education becomes the main sphere of human activity, decisively determining other aspects and aspects of the life of society, the face of civilization. The role of higher education is the essence of education for every person, his values, views, interests, and the most widespread type of modern human activity, in which a large number of people are simultaneously employed.

Human capital, especially its intellectual resource, has a decisive influence on the rate of economic growth and the level of national wealth. In these theories, the real driving force of progress is man, and growth is primarily a function of the development of capabilities inherent and revealed in man. The role of higher education in modern stage Russia's development is determined by the tasks of its transition to a democratic and legal state, to a market economy, the need to overcome the danger of the country lagging behind global economic and social trends, scientific and technological development. In the modern world, the importance of education as the most important factor in the formation of a new quality of economy and society increases along with the growing influence of human capital. The domestic education system is important factor preserving Russia's place among the leading countries of the world, its international prestige as a country with a high level of culture, science, and education.

IN last years The role of higher education is changing: it is becoming more accessible to a wide range of people. The supply of qualified labor is constantly growing, and its surplus makes it possible for the employer to choose from a huge mass of specialists, and, therefore, to increase claims on the level of employee training. Education is an important component of the reproduction of the labor force.

The proportions of the active population employed in the services sector, education, research, communication, social work and other activities where the percentage of university graduates is higher than, for example, in agriculture and traditional industries. Therefore, the role of higher education is increasing because the demand has become greater. Higher education is designed to impart knowledge, skills and develop qualities that will allow graduates to explore various professional situations and adapt to unexpected turns in the course of changes in technological processes, in the organization of work and in the structure of the profession. Higher education plays an important role in any university department, since it performs an important social task: it is one of the means of implementing social justice in society. Receiving higher education without interrupting work opens the way to knowledge, professional and cultural growth large number people who do not have the opportunity to receive a full-time education. These reasons often do not depend on a person’s personal characteristics (marital status, financial conditions, remoteness of the pedagogical university from the place of residence, etc.).

The formation and effective functioning of the higher education system for Russian citizens plays an important role, since it fulfills the most important condition for the socio-economic, scientific and technical development of the country, and the comprehensive development of the individual. Higher education plays a big role, and especially university education, at the same time acting as an innovator, contributing to the process of increasing knowledge as a result of ongoing research activities, and in the role of a conservative with regard to educational activities.

1. EducationWithancientVbelt

1. 1 Firstschools

The very first hints of the educational process appeared in the countries of the Ancient East (China, India, Babylon, Assyria, etc.). The most common at that time were three types of schools: palace, priestly and military. school education dopetrovsky russia

The flourishing of pedagogical thought and pedagogical practice occurred in Ancient Rome and Greece. IN Ancient Greece Two systems of education were mainly privileged: Athenian and Spartan. Spartan schools were the property of slave owners, and the rest were educated on the basis of a public system of pedagogy. Children of wealthy slave owners from the ages of 7 to 15 were educated outside the family and studied sciences such as writing, reading, and counting. But most of the time was occupied by military-physical training, which was considered the main thing in all areas of education.

From the age of 15 to the age of 20, young Spartans received mainly musical education (mostly choral singing). However, military physical training still remained the main form of training. The most important thing that was taught in Spartan schools was to answer the questions posed briefly and clearly. This is due to the fact that, according to ancient legend, the inhabitants of the city of Laconia (region of Sparta) were famous for this skill. It is from here that the well-known expressions “laconic style” and “speak laconically” came from.

1. 2 FirstUniversities

The first institution of higher education in Europe was the University of Constantinople, founded in 425 and granted university status in 848. Al-Qaraouine University was founded in 859 in Fez, Morocco. In the same 9th century, the University of Salerno appeared, which existed until 1861, as well as literary schools in Veliki Preslav and Ohrid, founded by the Bulgarian Tsar Michael I.

In the 11th century The University of Bologna was opened, initially representing a school where legal norms were developed on the basis of Roman law. The University of Paris grew out of several monastic schools at the end of the 12th century.

In 1117, Oxford University was already teaching students, and, according to history, after a clash between professors and students and the inhabitants of Oxford in 1209, some scholars fled north, where they founded the University of Cambridge. Except Cambridge in the 13th century. A number of universities were opened: in Salamanca, Montpellier, Padua, Naples, Toulouse. Universities appeared in the 14th century: in Florence ( studium general-- “universal school” (1321), in Prague (1348), in Krakow (1364), in Vienna (1365), in Heidelberg (1385), then in Leipzig (1409), in Basel (1459), etc. d..

Some authors believe that the spread of universities in medieval Europe was associated with the Reconquista in Spain, as a result of which Arab universities ended up on the lands of Christian states, as well as the European conquest of Arab Sicily and the crusaders' campaigns to the east, where they became acquainted with both Arab and Byzantine culture. Early universities in Western Europe enjoyed the patronage of the Catholic Church and had the status of schools under cathedrals(like the University of Paris) or Studium Generale (general schools). Later, universities were created by kings (Prague and Krakow universities) and municipal administrations (universities in Cologne and Erfurt). Studying at the university was divided into two stages. In the first of them (3-4 years), training consisted of mastering seven “liberal arts”. To begin with, the student was asked to learn to write and speak - he had to master the trivium (from the Latin trivium - trio, three) grammar, rhetoric and logic. This alone was enough to get a good position in the city administration or serve as secretary-manager in some feudal estate. After completing the trivium, the student could begin to study the quadrium (from the mode quadrium - quaternity, four). It included such disciplines as arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. It is important to remember that a unified training program characteristic of modern universities did not exist then. Studious could study any subjects for any amount of time. Often the studies stretched over many years - students moved from one university to another (thanks to the single language of instruction - Latin - there were virtually no borders for them) in search of rare books or the best professors; interrupted their studies to get a job in order to save money for a new course, etc. After mastering the seven “liberal arts” (and in some cases just the trivium), the student could move on to the second stage of training. It took place at one of the higher faculties, which, as a rule, specialized in one of three disciplines: theology, medicine or law. The first higher education institution in Eastern Europe became the Ostroh Academy, the founding date of which is considered to be 1576. In China, the Hanlin Academy, opened in the 8th century, is considered an educational institution similar to a university. TO XVIII century universities published their own scientific journals. Two main university models have emerged: German and French. The German model is based on the ideas of Wilhelm Humboldt and Friedrich Schleiermacher; The university supports academic freedom, laboratories and organizes seminars. In French universities, a strict order prevails; the administration directs all aspects of activity. Until the 19th century In European universities, religion formed a major part of the studies, but during the 19th century. its role gradually decreased. Universities focused on scientific research, and the German model, better suited to the pursuit of science, eventually became more widespread around the world than the French one. At the same time, higher education became increasingly accessible to wider sections of the population. Universities appeared in China.

2. The formation of education in Rus'

2. 1 Forthe beginnings of the educational process

The first schools appeared in Rus' under St. Vladimir. “Having sent, I began to take children from the deliberate children and began to give them for book learning.” However, the word “school” itself (from the ancient Greek “skole” - free time from work, leisure, leisure activities) was first used only in 1382. Teaching literacy and foreign languages was called “book learning.” From the word “teach” the name of places for learning was formed - taught, school, college. The first teachers were priests. Invited Greek priests taught the Russians the Greek language. Soon Russian teachers appeared, and even a teaching class separate from priests and monks - “teaching people”, who enjoyed the same respect as the clergy. The first teachers had liturgical books at their disposal, Holy Bible, lives of saints and the first works of Russian authors. Yaroslav the Wise, the son of Vladimir, unlike his father, knew how to read and write, he bought many sacred books. Under him, the Church of Sophia was built in Kyiv, where the palace translation school operated in the temple premises, where boys and young men, future monks, lived and studied together with priestly mentors. “And Yaroslav, loving the church rules, loving the priests, was a great monk, and diligent to books, and reading them often in the night and in the day. And the scribe collected many and converted from Greek to Slovenian writing. And having copied many books, through them, learning to be faithful, people enjoy the teachings of the divine. As if one would devastate the land, another would replant it, and another would reap and eat a waste of food—so and so. For this Father Volodymer looked at the earth and softened it, enlightening it with baptism. Having sowed the hearts of faithful people with bookish words, we will reap the teaching that is acceptable to the book.”

Schools appeared in Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Chernigov, Suzdal, Ladoga and other cities. Even foreigners received education in the Kyiv school at the temple.

In 1086, the first women's school in Europe was opened in Kyiv at the St. Andrew's Monastery. Anna, the daughter of Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich, gathered the girls for training: “... Having gathered the young girls, she taught them writing, crafts, singing, sewing and other knowledge useful to them, so that from their youth they would learn to understand the Law of God and hard work, and lust in their youth would be killed by abstinence " The educated princess herself headed the Russian embassy to Byzantium in 1089.

The grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh, continued to build churches. In many cities, schools were then opened, which accepted not only the children of priests, but also the children of artisans, and even slaves and captives. Adults who wanted to be ordained or become “teaching people”—teachers—could also study. In ancient Russian schools they not only taught literacy and foreign languages, but also educated, because the clergy had to become a moral example for the rest of the population. Many Russian boys, later recognized as saints, grew up in these schools.

The decline of the cultural life of Ancient Rus' as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion (as is known, most of the Old Russian manuscripts perished at this time) also affected education. From being mainly secular, it became almost exclusively spiritual (monastic). It was the Orthodox monasteries that played at this time (XIII-XV centuries) the role of guardians and disseminators of Russian education.

2. 2 ABOUTeducation in pre-Petrine times

The strengthening of the Moscow state also entailed a certain increase in education. On the one hand, numerous parish and private schools began to emerge, on the other, a system of Orthodox education was created and consolidated by the decisions of the Stoglavy Council (1554). “Chapter 35. About deacons who want to be made deacons and priests. About those who want to be promoted to deacons and priests, but have little ability to read and write; and appoint them as saints - otherwise it is contrary to the sacred rule, but do not establish them - and the holy churches will be without singing, and Orthodox Christians will be taught to die without repentance. And they elect a saint according to the sacred rule - they make priests for 30 years, and deacons for 25 years; and they would be able to read and write, so that they could uphold the Church of God and the children of their spiritual Orthodox peasants, they could govern according to the sacred rule. Yes, the saints torture them about this with great prohibition: why they don’t know how to read and write, and they answer; We learn from our fathers or from our masters, but there is nowhere for us to learn; As much as our fathers and masters know how, they teach us, but their fathers and masters themselves know little and do not know the power in the Divine Scripture; and they have nowhere to teach. And before this, in the Russian kingdom in Moscow, and in the great Novegrad, and in other cities, there were many schools for literacy, writing, and singing, and there was a lot of honor. But the singers, and the readers, and the scribes were famous throughout the whole earth to this day.

Chapter 36. About book schools throughout the city. And we, according to the royal council, laid down this: in the reigning city of Moscow and in all the cities, by the same archpriest and the oldest priest and with all the priests and deacons, each in his city with the blessing of his saint, - elect good spiritual priests and deacons and deacons , married and pious, having the fear of God in their hearts, able to use others, and read and write, and write profusely. And among those priests, and among deacons, and among clerks, set up schools in the houses of the school, so that the priests and deacons, and all Orthodox Christians in each city, would hand over their children to them for learning to read and write, and for the teaching of book writing, and church singing of the psalter, and reading tax, and those priests, and deacons, and elected clerks would teach their disciples the fear of God, and literacy, and writing, and singing, and honor with all spiritual punishment. Most of all, they would watch over their disciples and keep them in all purity, and protect them from all corruption. And you would teach your students to read and write as much as you can, and you would tell them the strength in writing, according to the talent given to you by God, hiding nothing; so that your disciples teach all the books that the conciliar holy church accepts, so that later and henceforth they can use not only themselves, but also others and teach the fear of God about all that is useful; They would also teach their students honor and to sing and write as much as they themselves can, hiding nothing, but expecting rewards from God, and even here accepting gifts and honors from their parents according to their dignity.”

In the XVI-XVII centuries. the centers of education in the East Slavic lands were Ukraine and Belarus. In the struggle against the political and ideological (especially religious) offensive of Poland, Ukrainian and Belarusian educators founded the so-called “fraternal schools”, closely associated with the national liberation movement. “...By the accomplishment and establishment of the ecumenical Patriarch Jeremiah, Archbishop of Constantinople of the new Rome and all Frop, the great church of Kon"stan" of Tinople, in the year 1588, established a school in the city of Lvov, at the Church of the Dormition of the Most Pure Mother of God, Greek and Slavic scriptures, according to the rank of God-bearing saints Father, Greek Orthodoxy, with great dedication, efforts and sacrifice (dependence) of the entire Lviv brotherhood, the Church of the Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the entire Russian Commonwealth, even to the poor widows, preying on every lack of legal science, careless people struggling, and blocking the lips of those who are contrary , so that from here the evil that has changed will begin to perceive the good, and salvation will spread throughout the whole brethren: change for evil, the firstfruits eat for salvation, salvation is near trouble...” On the basis of two such schools, the Kiev-Mohyla College was opened in 1632 (since 1701 . academy); in 1687, according to its model, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was created in Moscow. Printing houses arose in Ukraine and Belarus (it was there, in Ostrog near Lvov, that pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov went after fleeing Moscow); textbooks were created and published.

From the middle of the 17th century. Schools began to open in Moscow, modeled after European grammar schools and providing both secular and theological education. At this time, important changes occurred in the methods of primary education. The literal method of teaching literacy was replaced by the sound method. Instead of letter designation numbers (letters of the Cyrillic alphabet), Arabic numerals began to be used. The primers included coherent reading texts, for example, psalms. “ABC books” appeared, i.e. explanatory dictionaries for students.

It is important to emphasize the democratic (non-estate) nature of education already in pre-Petrine times. Thus, when the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was created, there were 76 students in it (not counting the preparatory class, or “school of Slovenian book writing”), including priests, deacons, monks, princes, sleeping men, stolniks and “Muscovites of every rank” down to the servants (servants) and the groom’s son.

What did Russian people learn in pre-Petrine times? The teaching of mathematics was the weakest. Only in the 17th century did textbooks with Arabic numerals begin to appear. Of the four rules of arithmetic, only addition and subtraction were used in practice; operations with fractions were almost never used. Geometry, or rather, practical land surveying, was more or less developed. Astronomy was also a purely applied field (compiling calendars, etc.). In the 12th century, astrology spread. Natural science knowledge was random and unsystematic. Practical medicine (mainly borrowed from the East) and especially pharmaceuticals developed. There was a very high interest in history. As P.N. writes Miliukov, “historical reading was, after religious, the most favorite reading of the ancient Russian literate. But satisfy the needs historical knowledge in Ancient Rus' it was quite tricky. With all the abundance of chronicles and historical tales about Russians historical events it was not easy to understand them, since neither a general guide nor any integral system existed in depicting the course of Russian history.”

In Rus', up to 2.5 thousand copies of primers were published annually, plus three thousand Books of Hours and one and a half thousand Psalms. Of course, for the 16 million population of Russia, this number is small, but it is obvious that literacy was already a mass phenomenon. The grammar of Meletius Smotrytsky appeared in 1648. (It should be noted that both the primers and the grammar described not the living spoken Russian language, but the literary Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic). In the 17th century, the first textbooks on rhetoric and logic appeared.

3. Education in RussiaXVII- XIXcenturies

3. 1 PeterI

Peter I the Great (1672 - 1725) - an outstanding statesman, Tsar of Moscow, All-Russian Emperor. Under Peter I, noble land ownership was strengthened, and an official bureaucracy with a pronounced class character was formed (“Table of Ranks”, “Decree on Land Ownership”, etc.). At the same time, a number of measures are being taken in the interests of the emerging bourgeoisie: the organization of commercial and industrial enterprises, the construction of plants and factories.

Peter I is trying to put science and school at the service of the practical needs of the army, navy, industry, trade, and public administration. Among the stream of decrees of Tsar Peter I there were many related to education.

During the first quarter of the 18th century. a whole network of primary schools was created. First of all, these are digital schools, originally intended for nobles, clerks, clerks and clerks' children aged 10-15 years. By the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. 42 such schools were opened, mainly in provincial cities. “The Great Sovereign indicated: in all provinces, nobles and clerks of the rank, clerks and clerks’ children from 10 to 15 years old, especially those from one palace, should teach numbers and some part of geometry, and for this teaching, send several students from mathematical schools to the province to the bishops and nobles monasteries, and in bishops' houses and monasteries, give them schools, and during that teaching, give those teachers 3 altyns of food, 2 money per day, from provincial revenues, which, according to the personal e.i.v.1 decree, were set aside; and from those students they have nothing to gain; and how those students of theirs will learn that science completely: and at that time give them certified letters in their own hand, and during that time they release those students for that teaching and give them a ruble per person; and without such certified letters they should not be allowed to marry and should not be given crown memorials.”

But already in 1727 their number was reduced to 27. They were in charge of the Admiralty, and only clerks’ and clerk’s children studied. Diocesan schools for children of members of the clergy, which began in the 17th century, became widespread. According to the Spiritual Regulations, such schools became mandatory in dioceses for the preparation of “the best and most efficient priesthood.” By the end of the reign of Peter I, the number of such schools reached 46. Finally, garrison schools for soldiers’ children also occupied a prominent place among primary schools.

Special schools acquired special importance, giving young people a profession in the field of industry. In 1716, a mining school appeared at the Olonets factories. In 1721, a school for future clerical workers was established. On the initiative of V.N. Tatishchev at the Ural factories founded schools for the children of artisans and clerks (Utkus and Kungur schools). At the beginning of the 18th century. a school of translators was opened at the Ambassadorial Prikaz.

A special group of educational institutions consisted of schools that trained highly educated clergy personnel. First of all, this is the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow, founded in the 17th century. Transferred to the Synod in 1727, it is now more often called “schools,” the first of which is Slavic-Latin. In 1727 there were 357 students. The second is Slavic-Russian (143 students), and the third is Greek-Greek (41 students). The last school under Stefan Yavorsky was infringed and barely survived. Another major center of spiritual education was Kyiv, where the Kiev-Mohyla Academy operated in Podol, in the Bratsky Monastery. In 1727, more than 500 people studied there (Little Russians, Great Russians and “from Poland”).

Finally, the most important in the system of Peter’s education were technical specialized educational institutions. The most famous of them is the Navigation School in Moscow. It accepted children from 12 to 17, and later up to 20 years old. The students learned Russian literacy and arithmetic in two classes. Then - geometry, trigonometry with applications in geodesy, astronomy, navigation and navigation. Subjects included painting and “rapier crafting.” Hundreds of engineers, sailors, hydrographers, topographers, bombardiers, etc. came out of the Navigation School. Soon similar schools were opened in Revel, Narva and Novgorod.

“The Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, the autocrat of all Great and Lesser and White Russia... indicated with his personal command to the Great Sovereign... to be mathematical and navigational, that is, nautical, cunning sciences. In the teachers of those sciences to be born in the English land: mathematical - Andrei Danilov's son Farkhvarson, navigation - Stepan Gvyn, and the knight Gryz; and to teach those sciences to all in supplying management in the Armory to the boyar Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin and his comrades, and to select those sciences for teaching voluntarily, but others even more so under compulsion; and provide daily food for the needy for food, using arithmetic or geometry: if someone is found to be somewhat skilled, five altyns a day; and for others, a hryvnia or less, having examined each of the arts of teaching; and for those sciences, to determine the yard in Kadashev of the workshop of the chamber, called the big linen, and about cleaning that yard, send your great sovereign decree to the workshop chamber of the bedchamber Gavrila Ivanovich Golovin, and, having taken that yard and having seen all the necessary needs in it, build from the income from Armory Chamber."

In 1715 By decree of the Tsar, the Maritime Academy was founded in St. Petersburg. Its staff (305 students) was made up of students from the Navigation School, as well as from the Novgorod and Narva Navigation Schools. Mostly children from noble families from 10 to 18 years old studied there. Among the special subjects were navigation, fortification, artillery, musketry, etc. The main thing is that they taught shipbuilding here. As in the Navigation School, at the Maritime Academy at first the main teachers were foreign professors. Magnitsky, the author of the famous textbook “Arithmetic,” worked for a long time at the Navigation School. The authors of a number of textbooks were also V. Kupriyanov (“ New way arithmetic"), G. Skornyakov-Pisarev (“Static science or mechanics”). But, of course, the bulk of textbooks were either translations or the result of the work of foreign teachers.

In 1701 in Moscow, at the new Cannon Yard, it was ordered to “build wooden schools.” It was an Artillery school, where 180 students were immediately recruited. In 1712, the Engineering School began to operate in Moscow, and in St. Petersburg in 1719, respectively, the Engineering Company, which accepted graduates of the Engineering School. Finally, in 1707, a Medical School was opened in Moscow (behind the Yauza River opposite the German Settlement).

In addition to textbooks, books on natural science and technology began to be published. These are works on astronomy, hydraulic engineering, medicine, fortification, artillery, navigation, shipbuilding, and architecture. Books on the humanities also appeared. The reform of the civil font was of great importance in the cause of education. Slovolitet Mikhail Efremov created the first examples of civil font letters. Their final choice (as well as Arabic numerals) was made in 1710 by Peter I himself. Such a radical reform contributed to more mass consumption of printed books. Books on history (“Synopsis” by I. Gisel, “Introduction to European History” by S. Puffendorf, “Pheatron” by Stratemil, etc.), translations of ancient authors (Josephus, Julius Caesar, Aesop, Ovid, etc.) were printed in limited editions 200-500 copies, and many times more. The publication of the printed newspaper Vedomosti was of great importance, the circulation of which in the first years ranged from 100 to 2,500 copies. The main printing house of the country was the Moscow Printing Yard.

Science in Peter's time was primarily developed by the needs of practice. Depletion of fur wealth developed in the 17th century. parts of Siberia (sable was practically knocked out) forced the Russian people to look for new lands, new fur and fish stocks. At the same time, a search was underway for new routes to distant eastern countries. So, already from the 17th century. Russian explorers were approaching Kamchatka. At the end of the century it was Morozno Staritsyn and Vladimir Atlasov, who collected enormous material and in the summer of 1699 built the Lower Kamchatka fort. In 1716 The first sea expedition was undertaken to Kamchatka. In 1711, the Kuril Islands were explored and a drawing of the entire Kuril ridge was drawn up. In 1711, the Chukchi of Anadyr received the first information about the land across the strait (the first information about America). In 1719 The expeditions of I. Evreinov and F. Luzhin were commissioned to find out whether America and Asia had come together. In 1720--1724. D. Messerschmidt's expedition reached Lena and Transbaikalia. In 1714, preparations began for A. Bekovich-Cherkassky’s expedition to Khiva and Bukhara to search for routes to India. In 1718 F. Benevenni went through the Caucasus and Persia to Bukhara, and in 1725 Guryev delivered materials about Khiva, Bukhara and the old bed of the Amu Darya. In 1722--1724. Ivan Unkovsky with the Cossacks described the lands along the river. Or and lake. Issyk-Kul. The study of lands near the river began. Terek, etc.

The result of many expeditions was the compilation of geographical maps (for example, the “Big Drawing” of Siberia by S. Remizov). In the 20s, a huge amount of work was going on to prepare the “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire” by I.K. Kirilova. Soimonov and Verdun compiled a map of the Caspian Sea, etc.

During the Peter the Great period, geological exploration reached an unprecedented scale. For 1700-1711 121 were opened in European Russia ore deposit. Among them there are many deposits of iron, copper, silver, coal, sulfur, oil, etc.

Great strides were made in the development of practical mechanics. This is an original arms factory designed by M.V. Sidorov, Yakov Batishchev’s machine for processing gun barrels and a machine for forging barrel boards. This is the invention of turning, turning-copying, gear-cutting and screw-cutting machines by the outstanding Russian mechanic Andrei Nartov, as well as the creation of a self-propelled caliper. Despite the fact that these were outstanding inventions, the general technical level of Western countries was, of course, higher than in Russia.

Russia can also be proud of another outstanding hydraulic master - I.I. Serdyukov. In 1702, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal system began. The new waterway, opened in 1709, revealed many flaws. Serdyukov carried out a radical reconstruction of the waterway, and by the middle of the century the system began to handle up to 12 million pounds of cargo.

A huge amount of work was done to create and collect scientific collections in mineralogy, metallurgy, botany, biology, etc. An astronomical observatory was organized. Attempts were made to organize linguistic and ethnographic expeditions. Peter's decree of 1720 on the collection of ancient manuscripts, chronographs, chroniclers and degree books from monasteries is widely known. In 1716, a copy of the Radziwill (Koenigsberg) Chronicle was made, and historical works began to be created (works on the history of F. Polikarpov, “Discourses on the Causes of the Suean War” by P. Shafirov, “The Book of Mars”, etc.).

The most ambitious achievement of Peter I's reforms was the creation of the Academy of Sciences. The great reformer expressed the idea of it in 1718. On January 28, 1724, the Senate announced the draft of the Academy, which, after correction, was approved by the tsar.

In its initial version, the Academy as an organization was syncretic (it was a research community, a university, and a gymnasium). The Academy had three departments: mathematics, physics and humanities (humanities). The first members of the Academy (and there were 12 of them, including the secretary) were supposed to monitor all new literature in their specialty, make “inventions” and give reports and “advice”. Along with Russian scientists and people capable of science, foreigners were invited to the Academy, in some cases very prominent scientists (mathematician I. Herman, physiologist and mathematician D. Bernoulli, mathematician N. Bernoulli, astronomer and geographer I. Delisle, etc.).

A library and museum (Kunstkamera), created in 1714, were attached to the Academy.

In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened, which played an outstanding role in the development of education in Russia.

At Moscow University, from the beginning of its foundation, intensive development of pedagogical, didactic and methodological problems was carried out. Already in the 50s of the XVIII century. At a conference of professors, it was decided to begin compiling “ general method teaching”, which “should be introduced in gymnasiums”. Special meetings of university scientists were devoted to issues of teaching methodology. One of the results of the development of these problems was a didactic manual for teachers, “The Way of Teaching,” first published in 1771 in Russian, Latin, German and French. The most important ideas of this manual were close to the “Regulations of Moscow gymnasiums” compiled by M. V. Lomonosov. At the same time, the “Way of Teaching” reflected many years of experience in the work of the university gymnasium and boarding school. The main ideas of the “Way of Teaching” were developed in numerous pedagogical works of N. N. Popovsky, A. A. Barsov, A. A. Prokopovich-Antonsky, Kh. A. Chebotarev and other domestic scientists second half of the 18th century, were used and developed by active figures in the commission of public schools F.I. Yankovich, M.E. Golovin, E.B. Syreyshchikov, V.F. Zuev, in the compilation of textbooks, manuals and methodological instructions teachers of public schools at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries.

3. 2 Obracalling in post-Petrine times

After Peter the Great, who made a significant contribution to the history of higher education in Russia, higher education no longer had such a pace of development. Only in Soviet times did higher education become one of the key directions of the CPSU policy. However, some steps have been taken in the field of education. Under Catherine II, it was schools and colleges that developed to a greater extent (the Institute of Noble Maidens, the so-called “public schools”, etc.).

During the reign of Alexander I, new universities were opened - Dorpat (1802), Vilna (1803), Kazan (1804) and Kharkov (1805). In 1819, St. Petersburg University, transformed from the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, began to operate. In 1804, a university charter appeared; it provided universities with significant autonomy: the election of a rector and professorship, their own court, non-interference by higher administration in the affairs of universities, the right of universities to appoint teachers in gymnasiums and colleges of their educational district. In 1804 - the first censorship charter. At universities, censorship committees were created from professors and masters, subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education.

During the time of Nicholas I, the Imperial University of St. Vladimir was founded in Kyiv in 1834 (by decree of Nicholas I on November 8, 1833, as the Kiev Imperial University of St. Vladimir, on the basis of the Vilna University and the Kremenets Lyceum, which were closed after the Polish uprising of 1830-1831).

Under Alexander II, it was possible to enter a technological institute, a higher technical school or an agricultural academy. Girls also received education in gymnasiums, with the possibility of further enrollment in higher women's courses.

The son of Alexander II - Alexander III pursued the following policy in the field of education: in the field of public education, a new university reform took place (the charter of 1884), which destroyed university self-government, the transfer of literacy schools into the hands of the clergy, a reduction in educational benefits for serving military service, the transformation of military gymnasiums to the cadet corps. The infamous Circular on Cook's Children was issued, limiting the education of children from the lower strata of society.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, there was a rapid development of sciences, the basics of which were taught in secondary schools. The basic principles were revised scientific knowledge. In the field of general methodology, the development of science was characterized by the penetration of dialectical materialism, which was gaining ever new positions. In the field of research methods proper, there is an increasing use of experimental techniques and technical means, and the constantly growing use of mathematics. At this time, an intensive process of differentiation and integration of sciences takes place. New branches of physics emerge, the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, theory elementary particles. The hitherto unprecedented successes of physics led to the rapid progress of technology, and the latter, in turn, provided new means of more subtle experimentation. The classical laws of natural science, old physics, chemistry, and mechanics receive a deeper and more accurate interpretation. The development of mathematics leads to a restructuring of the system of mathematical knowledge.

However, the material insecurity of large sections of the people, the class-based nature of the education system, the lack of continuity at its various levels - all this made education virtually inaccessible to the vast majority.

4. Modern universities in Russia

4. 1 Education in Sovietit's time

Higher education in Soviet Russia became a logical continuation of that used in Russian Empire the German education system, based on the ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt and having three stages: the first - secondary (10-year) school; the second (secondary vocational and specialized humanitarian education) - capital and provincial commercial, polytechnic and other schools; the third (higher and engineering education) - institutes and universities (among them, imperial and classical universities were especially valued). After the Civil War, many universities, especially military ones, were liquidated. Then, in 1923-1930, as a result of A. Lunacharsky’s reform (the creation of a fundamentally new) system of secondary vocational education, a number of metropolitan and regional practical institutes, many universities were transformed into technical schools. As a result of the post-revolutionary (1917-1930) nationalization of industry, key enterprises of the economy (national economy) were in the hands of the centralized state. It was generally accepted that in order to consolidate and increase Russia’s position in industry, to manage and develop it efficiently, the Soviet government actively solved the problem of personnel shortages by developing the training of highly qualified specialists. The period of active creation of universities of a new, “proletarian” type (priority in education is given to children from the disadvantaged, worker-peasant strata, exclusion of conditions for the revival of the old Russian intelligentsia) occurs during the period of entry into urgent industrialization projects of the country and this began in the 1930s year. In regional centers and large cities of the country, hundreds of new Soviet universities are being created again on the basis of the faculties of pre-revolutionary technological institutes and provincial universities being withdrawn (and exported to other regions). The rule is to have a university in each regional (territorial) center. From the former universities that remained by the 1930s, some of the faculties were transferred to a separate type of university - medical institutes (specific to the USSR exclusively). The Soviet education system, as before 1917, is again based on three levels: secondary school education (including incomplete or directly working vocational) education; specialized secondary professional education, - these are colleges (technical schools); higher (on the basis of complete secondary or secondary specialized education) - institutes and universities. If during the period of early capitalist development of the country the state and society were interested in the development of primary education, then in the USSR until the 1980s the main emphasis was on the massization of vocational and secondary specialized education. Universities were available only to 20% of graduates - people with complete secondary education (including after secondary school). The massification of higher education, which began in the leading countries of the world in the 1970s and 1980s, came to Russia in the second half of the 1990s.

4. 2 Russian higher education since 1992

Since 1992, higher education in Russia has undergone a number of significant changes, primarily related to the transition to a multi-level system and standardization of education. Since 2003, the higher education system in Russia has been developing, including within the framework of the Bologna process.

The concept of an educational standard in Russia appeared with the introduction of the RF Law “On Education” in 1992. Article 7 of this law was devoted to state educational standards.

A multi-level system of higher education was introduced in Russia in 1992, when the higher education system was supplemented by educational and professional programs at different levels of different nature and scope. It was supposed to ensure the rights of Russians to choose the content and level of their education and create conditions for a flexible response high school to the demands of society in a market economy, humanization of the educational system. For these purposes, a resolution was adopted by the Committee on Higher Education of the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technical Policy Russian Federation, which approved the “Temporary Regulations on the Multi-Level Structure of Higher Education in the Russian Federation” and the “Regulations on the Procedure for the Implementation of Educational and Professional Programs at Different Levels by State Higher Educational Institutions.” The system of multilevel higher education presented in the documents took into account the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), a classification adopted by UNESCO, which has served as a tool since 1978 comparative analysis in the field of education at the national and international levels to collect and present internationally comparable educational statistics.

Law of the Russian Federation of July 10, 1992 No. 3266-1 “On Education” in its original version did not contain provisions on the gradation of higher education into stages (levels), but referred to the competence of the Government of the Russian Federation the approval of state educational standards (including higher professional education) . The state educational standard for higher professional education, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 12, 1994 No. 940, determined the structure of higher professional education, which has been preserved practically unchanged. Three levels of programs continued to exist. One could enroll in programs that earned a traditional specialist qualification after school, or continue their education after the first two levels. After training in the first two steps, it was possible to continue it in the next steps.

Adopted on August 22, 1996, Federal Law No. 125-FZ “On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education” distinguished three levels of higher professional education:

Higher professional education, confirmed by awarding a person who successfully passes the final certification a qualification (degree) of “bachelor” (at least four years of study);

Higher professional education, confirmed by awarding a person who successfully passes the final certification the qualification “certified specialist” (at least five years of study);

Higher professional education, confirmed by awarding a person who successfully passes the final certification a Master’s qualification (degree) (at least six years of study).

The understanding of these steps remains the same. Persons who received state-issued documents on higher professional education at a certain level had the right, in accordance with the received area of training (specialty), to continue their education in the educational program of higher professional education at the next level, which was not considered a second higher education. At the same time, incomplete higher education was removed from the category of the level of higher professional education.

Persons with secondary vocational education in the relevant profile or good abilities could receive higher vocational education in shortened or accelerated bachelor's programs. Receiving higher professional education in shortened specialist training programs and master's programs was not allowed.

Since 2000, state educational standards for higher professional education of the first generation began to be adopted (from that time on, for each specialty and each area of training at educational levels).

By Order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated July 26, 2000 No. 1072-r, the Action Plan of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of social policy and economic modernization for 2000-2001 was approved. In the field of higher education for the transition period, it was envisaged to introduce a competitive procedure for distributing state orders for training specialists and financing investment projects of universities, regardless of their organizational and legal form, and establishing a special status educational organizations instead of the existing status of state institutions, the transition to a contractual basis of financial relations between educational organizations and the state, as well as the introduction of the principle of targeted scholarships.

In order to increase the efficiency of public spending on education, the Government of the Russian Federation plan provided for the implementation of measures aimed, among other things, at the reorganization of vocational education institutions through their integration with higher education institutions and the creation of university complexes.

Along with the gradual transition to normative per capita financing of higher professional education, the Government of the Russian Federation envisaged an experiment in conducting a unified state final exam for secondary education with its subsequent legislative reinforcement.

In the course of implementing this provision, on February 16, 2001, Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 119 “On organizing an experiment on the introduction of a unified state exam” was adopted. According to the document, the Unified State Exam was supposed to ensure the combination of state (final) certification of graduates of the XI (XII) classes of general educational institutions and entrance examinations for admission to educational institutions of higher professional education. The experiment was designed for 3 years (from 2001 to 2003), but in 2003 it was extended for another year. In 2001, educational institutions of five regions took part in the experiment - the Republic of Chuvashia, Mari El, Yakutia, Samara and Rostov regions. The exams were held in two stages: the first (school) was held from June 4 to 20 - for school graduates of 2001, the second (university) - from July 17 to 28 for school graduates of previous years, non-resident applicants, graduates of technical schools and vocational schools. Exams were held in 8 subjects (Russian language, mathematics, biology, physics, history, chemistry, social studies and geography).

In 2003, at the Berlin meeting of European education ministers, Russia joined the Bologna process by signing the Bologna Declaration.

Since 2005, state educational standards for higher professional education of the second generation began to be adopted, aimed at students acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities.

Since 2007, there has been an even more significant change in the structure of higher education. In 2009, amendments were adopted to the Federal Law of August 22, 1996 No. 125-FZ “On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education”. The levels of higher professional education were replaced by its levels. Two levels of higher education were introduced: bachelor's degree, specialist training, and master's degree.

Accordingly, it was necessary to change the system of state educational standards, which became federal (third generation). The basis for them was the competency-based approach, according to which higher education should develop general cultural and professional competencies in students.

On December 29, 2012, Federal Law No. 273-FZ “On Education in the Russian Federation” was adopted, which came into force on September 1, 2013. The system of higher professional education merged with postgraduate professional education and became known as higher education (at the corresponding levels).

4. 3 The best universities in Russia

Now the number of higher educational institutions is large. Many of them merge into one large university. For example, on far east to the Far Eastern Federal University included three universities: Far Eastern State University(FEGU), Far Eastern State Technical University (FEGTU), as well as the Pacific State Economic University (TSEU).

Different cities train professional engineers, military sailors, special services workers, etc. Nowadays, the leading and prestigious universities in Russia are: Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, REU named after. G.V. Plekhanov, MGIMO (university) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, St. Petersburg State University of Economics, Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. Bauman, MAI (National Research University), National Research University "MPEI" and State University of Medicine.

Conclusion

Higher education not only in Russia, but also in the world, plays a vital role in the development of humanity. By receiving higher education, a person not only has new opportunities for further employment, but he can also become an “engine” of science. The topic of the history of higher education in Russia discussed in this essay helps to understand how important its emergence and development has been since ancient times. The emergence of the first schools in ancient countries contributed to the emergence of the first educational institutions in ancient Rus'. And their development led to the creation of gymnasiums, universities and academies.

...

The origin and main trends in the development of higher education in Russia (XVII - early XX centuries)

The first higher educational institutions in Russia

In Russia, within the borders of its modern territory, the first most famous academies and higher schools were the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (1687) and the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701) in Moscow; in St. Petersburg these are the Maritime Academy (1715), the Academic University under the Academy of Sciences (1725 - as an independent St. Petersburg University it was re-established in 1819, the Mining School (1733), the Naval Cadet Corps (1750). An important role in the development of higher education The Academy of Sciences, created in St. Petersburg on the instructions of Peter I, played a role in Russia. Its first meeting took place at the very end of 1825 after the death of Peter I.

On the initiative and project of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was founded in 1755, which made it possible to complete the three-stage model of a unified education system - “gymnasium - university - academy”. In the Decree of January 12, 1755, simultaneously with the establishment of the university, a number of important policy provisions in the field of education were formulated for the first time, in particular, the need to replace foreign teachers with “national people”, give lectures in Russian and ensure a close connection between theory and practice in teaching was noted. Later, this principle became the methodological core of progressive views on education in domestic higher education. In the same 1755, the first university charter was adopted, which determined the status of the university and regulated its internal life. New versions of the Charter, issued in 1804, 1835 and 1884, reflected changes in the policy of the autocracy in the field of higher education, as well as changes in the economy and socio-political structure of Russia

Over time, M.V. Lomonosov’s demand for non-interference by church authorities in the life of the university was forgotten. Addendum 3 to dep. 2, ch. 2 of the Charter of 1835 read: “On June 2, 1850, the Highest commanded: with the abolition of the teaching of Philosophy by Secular Professors in all universities, including Dorpat, to entrust the reading of Logic and Experimental Psychology to Professors of Theology or Law Teachers...” The transfer of such scientific disciplines as psychology and logic into the hands of church authorities deprived these subjects of the necessary freedom, which is the guarantor of scientific development.

At the same time, in order to meet the growing need for training of gymnasium teachers and improving their professional culture, the 4th Addendum to this Charter ordered: “On November 5, 1850, the Department of Pedagogy was established at all Universities, except Dorpat, with the introduction of it into the staff Faculty of History and Philology" In fact, government pedagogical education without a psychological scientific basis often turned into dogma.

Women's education occupies a special place in the history of Russian higher education. The abolition of serfdom (1861), the subsequent reforms of 1861-1870, the industrial revolution in Russia and the spread of liberal democratic sentiments played an important role in the emergence of a movement in favor of female education in the country. One of his most famous supporters was the outstanding Russian teacher N.A. Vyshnegradsky. In the second half of the 19th century. The first "all-class women's schools" are opened as an important link in the secondary education system.

Nevertheless, in 1863, graduates of women's gymnasiums were denied access to higher education. The reason for this was the refusal of Moscow and Dorpat universities to admit women to study. That is why many Russian girls from wealthy families were forced to study at foreign universities, in particular in Switzerland. Over time, under the influence of enlightened sections of the population, higher courses for women began to be created in Russia, where girls of non-noble origin could also study. Among them, the most famous were the so-called “Bestuzhev Higher Women's Courses” in St. Petersburg, which since 1878 were headed by K.I. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. These courses trained teachers, doctors, and public figures.

... Think, read,

AND learn from others,

And he doesn’t understand himself.

T. Shevchenko

Features of the unitary and binary system of higher education

The development of education in any country largely determines not only the level of development of the intellectual potential of society, but also creates the conditions for scientific, technical and socio-economic progress. Therefore, education, as a means of determining guidelines for reforming economic sectors and other areas of activity, should have a proactive character.

First of all, we note that in the diversity of higher education institutions in world practice, two main trends are clearly distinguished: unitary and binary. Higher education under the unitary system is represented by universities or other equivalent educational institutions that provide general academic degrees. Training programs of varying lengths and levels are deeply professional in nature, academic and theoretical in orientation. Anglo-American countries (Great Britain, USA) use just such a system. Thus, at the University of Iowa (USA), bachelor's education is carried out in the relevant colleges: agriculture, business, veterinary medicine, and agricultural engineering. After their completion, students receive the corresponding degrees: bachelor, doctor of veterinary medicine. At the University of Louisiana (USA), next to colleges, professional schools take part in the educational process: library and information sciences, Music and Art, Social Work, and other academic units such as the University Laboratory.

The graduate college provides master's level. College teachers who, by their level and professional direction were selected to the general faculty of the master's degree, can teach some subjects for master's students. Signs of the unitary system can also be found in Italy, Spain, and Sweden.

By binary or double systems The traditional university sector exists in parallel with the non-university higher education sector. There are programs with an in-depth theoretical course aimed at thorough scientific research and programs vocational training high level. Academic development in the non-university sector predominates, and universities are increasingly involved in professionally oriented activities. The binary system has been preserved in Belgium, Austria, Holland, Finland, Germany and Ireland. Norway has a tendency to cooperate and integrate both sectors.

Now the laws of Ukraine “on education” and “On higher education” define the ways of regulation public relations in the field of education, education, professional and scientific training of citizens of Ukraine, the appropriate foundations have been created for reforming the entire education system in accordance with the standards outlined by the Bologna Agreement and trends in the global educational space. Agricultural education as an integral part of professional higher education also needs to be reformed.

Higher agricultural education

Today, the agricultural sector, like Ukraine as a whole, needs a holistic education system that would meet national interests and the vector of civilizations of its development and provide training for specialists capable of bringing innovative ideas to life. So, it is relevant to turn to the history of the formation of higher agricultural education and compare the features of the functioning of agricultural educational institutions abroad and on the territory of modern Ukraine.

A.S. thoroughly studied the problem of the development of agricultural education in Ukraine. Bilan In his dissertation research, he proves that the origins of agricultural education and science reach ancient times. The acquisition of numerous crafts and the development of agriculture occurred through the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation orally and through industrial practice. Only in the 18th century. Special educational agricultural schools began to be created. Earlier than other European countries, the development of agricultural education occurred in Germany. Start of teaching agriculture as academic subject was founded in 1727, when the Prussian king Frederick William founded the department of economics at the University of Halle. Agriculture formed the bulk of the economics lecture course. During the 18th century, similar departments were created in almost all other universities in Germany.

A new era of agricultural education was opened by the scientist-teacher Albrecht Thayer. It was he who substantiated the need to study agricultural disciplines in close connection with practice in rural farms. On his initiative and under his leadership, the first agricultural academy was created in Meglini in 1806. Then similar establishments were started in Hohenheim, Schleisheim, Tarantier, Regenwaldi, Eldeni, Proskau, Poppelsdorf. Wildau. The presence of a large number of special educational institutions had a decisive influence on the scientific development of agricultural problems and the development of large private farms in Germany. In the sixties XIX century most of these educational institutions were closed. The next scientific development of agricultural issues was carried out by university departments. An outstanding role in this belongs to Yu. Kühn, who in 1862 took the position of head of the department of agriculture at the University of Halle. Under his leadership at the university, where students studied the full volume natural sciences(which did not exist in special academies), an agricultural institute was created - a whole complex of institutions for the visual and practical consolidation of theoretical material. Similar institutes were founded at universities in Leipzig, Hesse, Göttingen, Königsberg, Kiel, Brislau, and Heidelberg. For a long time these institutes were the main higher agricultural educational institutions in Germany. As an independent educational institution there was an agricultural higher school in Berlin.

By 1900, there were 22 secondary agricultural educational institutions in Germany. Three of them were associated with real gymnasiums. Based on paragraph 2 of the Bavarian School Law, the basics of agricultural knowledge were introduced into the curriculum of general education schools.

German lower agricultural schools had a short course of study (from 1.5 to 2 years) and were distinguished by a wide variety of educational organization. In 1900, there were 51 lower schools, 7 of which existed at secondary schools. After 1900. Winter schools for the peasantry became widespread. At a relatively high level general education in villages, winter schools and additional classes on agriculture, created at secondary schools, became widespread in Germany and Austria.

Currently, there is a separate link in the German higher education system - the Higher Vocational School (Fachhochschule), which trains specialists for the agricultural sector.

The legislative basis of modern German education is the Federal Law on Higher Education and the laws on higher education of individual states. According to these laws, the task of higher education is to further develop the sciences and arts and prepare students for professional activity in these areas. In order to equalize the chances, the Federal Law on Support of Education outlines the circle of persons applying for state scholarship. A common feature of all higher schools with university status, which enroll 1,500,000 students, is the traditional right to grant academic degrees. As a rule, graduates are deprived of this opportunity special universities, occupying second place after universities in the academic education system. Their training is focused on practical professional training, and its duration is shorter.

In general, universities in Germany are divided into: general universities (Universitäten) and technical (Technische Universitäten), higher technical schools (Technische Hochschulen) and special

(FachHochschulen), humanitarian universities. The latter, in turn, are divided into the College of Arts (Musikhochschulen, Ki nslhudrxtlmleri), pedagogical - University - (Pädagogischen Hochschulen), universities "with preparation civil servants (Verwaltungsfachhochschulen) and priests (Kirchlischen Hochschulen). In the states of Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia there are universities that combine classical university programs and shorter, specialized ones under one roof. There is also an exclusively German type of university - a professional academy (Berufsakademie), which accepts only employees of German companies.

Let us note that the main property of all universities in Germany is maximum attention to the individuality of the student, his needs and interests.

The individual cognitive needs of the student are realized by the choice of programs and forms of education, the possibility of choosing seminars, areas of research work. German universities show diversity training sessions, which allows you to develop the student’s creative individuality. Lecture (Vorlesung) - classic university uniform. During traditional lectures, teachers explain the material, students take notes, and then (outside the lecture) work on the topic further. Teachers often conduct special classes with students, where they can acquire additional skills in practical application new knowledge. In some faculties these classes are called tutorials, they are conducted by senior students. At seminars (Seminar) students and teachers work together educational material. In many universities, seminars in the initial courses of study have the content of “proseminars” (Proseminar), and in the main course they are divided into “intermediate” and “basic” (Mittel - und Haupt/ oder Oberseminar). At many faculties, during seminars, students present abstracts, which are then discussed. After successfully attending seminar classes, students receive a special certificate (Schein). Such certificates of participation in seminars, lectures or practical classes are important documents student life. A student is allowed to take the exam only if he can provide the specified number of such certificates.

The academic year, as in Ukraine, is divided into two semesters, but there are differences in their names and terms. In just a year, Fachhochschulen students have about 5 months of vacation. But this time is provided not only for entertainment; students must engage in creative activities: writing dissertations, coursework and prepare for exams. Those who wish are currently undergoing practical training and internships abroad, which is especially important for students of special universities. As part of the educational process at universities in Germany, mandatory internships in German companies are provided. The internship period ranges from 3 months to 1 year. An integral part of the educational process is educational excursions, ranging from short general cultural excursions, which are optional, to professional excursions, participation in which is provided for by the program, and their duration can be significant. For example, two-week excursions to France, Holland, Italy and other countries are widely practiced. In-depth excursions may be preceded by several weekend retreats discussing papers on relevant topics. In-depth excursions, as a rule, are organized and financed mainly for students of special universities (Fachhochschulen) and art colleges o (Musikhochschulen * Kunsthochschulen).

At the end of their studies at a higher educational institution in Germany, students take a state exam (Exam) or higher school exam (Diplom, Magister). More and more universities in Germany are offering internationally recognized degrees (Bachelor, Master), to shorten the relatively long training period and ease the transition to professional activity.

The duration of study at universities in Germany should be four to five years, but in reality the educational process is somewhat longer: this is due to the specifics of the German organizational model of higher education. Students must adhere to a specific curriculum, which determines the list of required subjects and the timing of their study. The specific quantitative (workload) and qualitative (list of disciplines) “filling” of the semester depends entirely on the desire of the student. The absence of a stable schedule like school eliminates the concept of a student group, because the student, attending various seminars of his own choice, finds himself in a new environment each time. However, a large academic workload does not mean that “extracurricular” student life is pale and inexpressive: on the contrary, it works very intensively at the faculty level, promoting continuity and close ties between different “generations” of students. Students of the “senior” semesters recruit “beginners” and future applicants by organizing “open days”, informing those interested by email, etc.

It is important to emphasize that German universities have a developed system of counseling on various issues of student life. Student unions (AstA, UstA, StuRa) of individual faculties have the opportunity to influence the organization of the educational process, for example, by expressing their thoughts about a particular candidate for a professorship, the content of elective courses, etc.

Obtaining a master's degree is the academic completion of professional education. It provides a minimum of 8 semesters. A prerequisite for obtaining a master's degree is successfully passing the master's examinations. The master's degree that can be obtained in Germany is equivalent to the master's degree in English-speaking countries in Europe and the United States. For the main diploma exam, writing is required thesis, which takes from 1 to 2 semesters. The procedure for the diploma examination is regulated by the relevant faculty.

Ukrainian applicants and students are probably interested in knowing how to get higher education in Germany, so we will detail this problem.

Higher education in Germany costs more than in other countries. Costs per student from the first semester until graduation are about 120 thousand Euros (compared to the average European cost of 72 thousand Euros). In addition, German universities produce far fewer specialists than universities in other countries. The share of German schoolchildren who receive the right to further study at a university (35%) is quite low: in particular, according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Finland and Sweden, 72 and 69% of young people are eligible for higher education. Added to the low proportion of applicants are other sad facts: a large number of German students do not graduate from university, and the duration of study is not optimal.

Further measures to improve the quality of higher education in Germany could be appropriate assessment and accreditation methods, supporting the qualifications of teachers and close attention to the competence of higher education applicants, creating an effective higher education management system, improving the quality of student scientific research through support for research activities, the need for wider introduction of dialogic forms in the educational process instead of traditional lectures. Such a position may turn out to be especially fruitful not only for German, but also for Ukrainian universities: critical assessment of facts based on processing various sources of information should become a more creative activity for students than the usual “cramming” of lecture notes or one textbook.

In France, the highest educational institution that trained agricultural specialists was the National Agronomic Institute in Paris. When completing a two-year course of study, in addition to special subjects, the main cycles of natural sciences were read. In the history of agricultural education in France, an important role belonged to the Roville school. As of 1900, there were 5 secondary agricultural educational institutions in the country, 3 general and 2 special. There were practical farms at secondary educational institutions. The duration of training was 2.5 years. Below the rear was a practical school of agriculture, of which there were 44 in France. These schools belonged to local administrative units: departments and districts or individuals. All educational institutions of the lower type had government subsidies, were associated with practical farms and were designed to train small producers.

In England in the 19th century, agricultural education was rather poorly developed. Before the foundation of the Cirenchester Academy in 1845, there were no special agricultural schools in England. However, the spread of agricultural knowledge in the first half of the 19th century. engaged in agricultural societies, for example, Edinburgh.

The first famous scientists (Arthur Jung), the first model farms and first simple practical agricultural schools.

Almost all agricultural educational institutions in England were private and did not receive financial support from the government. By 1900, there were 10 colleges that provided special education, only 3 of them were completely agricultural, 7 had corresponding departments. Lectures on agriculture were given in all colleges and some universities.

In the United States of America, the development of agricultural education was facilitated by the adoption of a law in 1862, according to which each educational institution that introduced agricultural or technical education into its program received a plot of land at its disposal. By 1900, there were 64 colleges offering agricultural courses, and only one college had a specific agricultural purpose. Many colleges were components universities. Experimental fields were created, agricultural research was carried out, and were in close connection with the activities of colleges.

The dissemination of agricultural knowledge among the rural population on a large scale occurred due to measures outside school education thanks to the educational work of agricultural farming societies and conducting numerous lectures in them.

History of agricultural schools in Western Europe in the first half of the 19th century. proved that the success of educational institutions was largely ensured by talented teaching staff. Thus, the Meglin Academy owed its worldwide popularity to the famous agricultural educator Thayer; Hohenheim Academy - Schwartz, Weckerlin, Pabst; Zldenaska Academy - Schulz; Poppelsdorfska - Garstein; Gahallic Institute - Kuehne. It was on the basis of the experience of these outstanding figures in agrarian affairs that the first teachers of domestic agricultural schools subsequently created their programs.

In the Russian Empire, even before the emergence of agricultural central bodies, the ruling monarchs signed laws on the creation of the first agricultural schools. The first laws that regulated the activities of the state in the field of agriculture date back to the reign of Peter I and Catherine II. The publication of legislative acts related to the introduction of agricultural education dates back to the reign of Paul I. By his order in 1797, the first government government was founded near the city of Pavlovskaya agricultural school. However, due to the uncertainty of the tasks assigned to the educational institution, as well as due to the difference in the previous education of students, which was of great importance for the construction of educational programs, the school was closed in 1803.

After the first unsuccessful experience, the next step in organizing agricultural education belongs to the first agricultural societies: the Imperial Free Economic (Iveta) (+1765) and the Imperial Moscow Agriculture Society (1819). Thanks to their initiative in the 20s. XIX century Moscow (1822) and St. Petersburg (1825) agricultural schools were opened. The school, founded by the Moscow Society, was transformed into the first Russian agricultural school, which existed until 1917. The St. Petersburg Free Economic Society also tried to provide agricultural education, but in 1844 the school was closed. After the first failure, the society opened an agricultural educational institution in the south. Thus, thanks to Ivet’s initiative, the first agricultural school in Ukrainian territory was opened in 1854 near the city of Kharkov. As we see, at the beginning of the 19th century. There have been isolated attempts to open agricultural educational institutions. But they began unsystematically, their number was very small, and their existence was short.

A significant step in the spread of school agricultural education was made under the influence of the conclusions of the work of the “Commission for the Improvement of Agriculture in the Empire,” created in 1833 on the initiative of President Sheth N.S. Mordvina. The activities of the commission contributed to the development of a number of issues that stimulated the adoption of systematic activities for the dissemination of agricultural knowledge. The formation of departments of agriculture at higher educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education - universities and lyceums - also dates back to this time, which was enshrined in the university charter of 1835. At the suggestion of the commission

Moscow society and Iveta received significant funds from the government for the organization and maintenance of their agricultural educational institutions. In addition, it was decided to open two more vocational educational institutions: in the city of Gorki (Mogilev province) and in the city of Yuryev.

Systematic measures to disseminate agricultural education were introduced by the Department of Agriculture, which acted as a division of the Ministry of State Property (1837). In 1837, the first legislative acts concerning agricultural education were adopted: “Regulations on agricultural schools” and “Charter for agricultural schools”. Subsequently, it was decided to create an agricultural school in Gorki (1840) and create a network of model educational farms in the empire. 1874 in Kherson. The Kherson Zemstvo Agricultural School was started, the purpose of which was to train agronomists and managers in the field of agriculture. Now this school has turned into one of the leading higher state agricultural institutions in Ukraine - Kherson State Agrarian University.

On modern Ukrainian territories at the beginning of the 19th century In higher education in Kharkov, then Kyiv, Odessa and Yekaterinoslav, agricultural science also developed in the corresponding departments. And only 1898 was opened Kyiv Polytechnic Institute with a special agricultural department, where agricultural specialists were trained. In 1914, the Novooleksandriysky Agricultural Institute was transferred to Kharkov. Average level agricultural education was represented by the Kharkov (1855), and then the Uman and Kherson agricultural schools of the Ministry of State Property.

In the Ukrainian lands that were part of Austria-Hungary, in general, there were trends that were inherent in Western Europe. Higher agricultural education could be obtained at the Agrarian Faculty of the University of Krakow and the Agrarian Academy in Dublyany near Lviv. 1801 The Department of Agriculture was founded at Lviv University. The middle level was represented by an agricultural school, which was located near Krakow in Czernyachow.

An excursion into the history of Ukrainian science showed that the formation of a system of higher agricultural education on Ukrainian lands was based in XIX - early XX centuries by the existing government, made the first attempts to create agricultural higher educational institutions in different regions of the Russian Empire, following the example of which other educational institutions of a similar type and direction for training agricultural specialists began to be created. Big role In the process of preparing for the establishment of the first agricultural higher educational institutions of Ukraine, P. Budrin, E. Votchal, V. Dokuchaev, V. Kirpichev, F. Pilger, M. Sibirtsev and other scientists played a role.

Management system of higher agricultural education in the period before 1917. was decentralized, since it was characterized by the fact that the management of agricultural universities was within the competence of various government bodies, and its condition depended on the activity of the teaching staff. Activities of government structures in the field of higher agricultural education in Ukraine in the 19th - early 20th centuries. had a negative impact on the pace of its development and contained strict management control, the ultimate goal of which was forced ideologization. This, in turn, led to the establishment of restrictions in the manifestation of the abilities of scientists and entailed a narrow focus on the development of higher agricultural education. According to their legal status, agricultural educational institutions were regional divisions of central government institutions to which they were subordinate (ministries, main departments, etc.), and their internal activities were carried out on the basis of their own charters.

Despite the lack of properly substantiated and clearly drawn up legislative and regulatory documents, standard curricula and programs, insufficient attention of the state authorities to solving problems associated with higher professional education, higher agricultural education of the population of Ukraine had the opportunity to acquire in: a) higher specialized educational institutions of agricultural profile (Kharkiv Veterinary Institute, Novooleksandriysky Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, Agrarian Academy in Dublyany, Lviv Academy of Veterinary Medicine,

Higher courses in winemaking at the Nikitsky Botanical Garden); b) through the system of teaching various branches of agriculture in universities and higher specialized educational institutions of a different profile (agricultural department of the Kiev Polytechnic Institute, departments of the Kharkov Institute of Technology, agronomic departments of Kiev, Lvov and Kharkov universities) c) higher educational institutions of foreign countries (Vienna Agricultural Institute and etc.).

Higher agricultural educational institutions of the 19th - early 20th centuries. became the basis of higher agricultural education in modern Ukraine and contributed to the development of agricultural science, the introduction of new technologies and increased labor productivity in agriculture.

Now the agricultural industry, like Ukraine as a whole, requires a productive system of agricultural education that would meet national interests and global development trends and provide training for highly professional agricultural specialists capable of implementing innovative ideas in real life. 19 agricultural universities of III-IV accreditation levels and 34 universities of I-II accreditation levels are involved in solving these problems. The implementation of strategic directions of agrarian policy aimed at deep reform of agriculture on the basis of private ownership of land and property, increasing production volumes of competitive products, creating conditions for free choice of types of production activities largely depends on the level of training of specialists involved in agro-industrial production, and necessitates a new approach to rural staffing.

Modern conditions for the development of Ukraine, its signing of the Bologna Agreements, determine the search for new approaches to organizing the educational process in higher agricultural educational institutions of Ukraine. Summarizing the accumulated domestic and foreign experience, researchers (Bilan S.A., Tanchik S.P. and others) propose to reform the system of higher agricultural education taking into account the following aspects: - updating the content of higher agricultural education and defining its standards for

the level of achievements of agricultural science, engineering and technology, as well as world experience based on the use of ideas for integrating general education and special training;

Determination of a scientifically determined nomenclature of professions and specialties in accordance with the requirements of the socio-economic and cultural development of Ukrainian society in a specific historical period, as well as taking into account the characteristics of the region and its need for specialists;

Strengthening the combination of theoretical and practical training of students;

Strengthening the educational and material base and scientific and methodological support of the educational process in higher agricultural educational institutions;

Diversity of sources of funding for higher agricultural educational institutions and tuition fees to expand access to higher agricultural education for young people.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN WORLD PRACTICE; HISTORICAL ASPECT

Schools and higher education institutions, as global educational systems, have gone through a centuries-long path of historical development. On the one hand, they had a significant influence on the accumulation, preservation and progress of culture and society as a whole and, on the other hand, they felt the variety of cardinal changes that took place in society, science and culture of all countries and peoples.
“History is a witness of the past, the light of truth, a living memory, a teacher of life, a messenger of antiquity.”
Cicero
The initial period of development of schools, higher education institutions and other educational institutions dates back to the era of great civilizations.
What are the origins of the emergence and development of modern schools in world educational practice?
The emergence of the school occurred during the era of transition from the communal-tribal system to a socially differentiated society. Despite the fact that ancient civilizations, as a rule, existed separately from each other, they were guided in principle general principles in the field of human education. According to ethnography, the preliterate (drawing) period ended around the 3rd millennium BC. e. and there was an emergence of cuneiform and hieroglyphic writing as methods of transmitting information.
It was the emergence and development of writing that was the most important factor in the genesis of the school. Since writing became a technically more complex way of transmitting information, it required special training.
The second factor that determined the emergence of schools was the division of human activity into mental and physical labor, as well as the complication of the nature of the latter. The division of labor led to the formation of various specializations and specialties, including the profession of teacher and educator. A certain result of social development was expressed in the relative independence of the school from the institutions of the church and state. First of all, it established itself as a school of writing. Its goal was to teach the ability to read and write, or literacy, to individual members of society (the aristocracy, clergy, artisans and merchants).
Family, church and state were the focus of education in the era ancient civilizations. That's why schools appear different types: home, church, private and public.
The first educational institutions that taught literacy received different names.
For example, literacy schools in ancient Mesopotamia were called “houses of tablets”, and during the heyday of the Babylonian state they grew into “houses of knowledge”
IN Ancient Egypt schools arose as a family institution, and later they began to appear at temples, palaces of kings and nobles.
In Ancient India, family schools and forest schools first appeared (his faithful disciples gathered around the hermit guru; training took place in the fresh air). In the Buddhist era, schools of the Vedas arose, the education in which was secular and caste-based in nature. During the period of the revival of Hinduism in India (II-VI centuries), two types of schools were organized at temples - primary (tol) and a higher level educational institution (agrahar).
In China, the first schools appeared in the 3rd millennium BC. and were called “Xiang” and “Xu”.
In the Roman Empire, trivial schools took shape, the content of education of which was represented by the trivium - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and grammar schools - educational institutions of a higher level, where four subjects were taught - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, or the quadrivium. The trivium and quadrivium constituted the program of the seven liberal arts. In the 4th century, rhetorical schools appeared, which mainly trained orators and lawyers for the Roman Empire.
Already at the beginning of the 1st century, the Christian Church began to organize its own catechumen schools. Subsequently, on their basis, catechism schools were created, which were later transformed into cathedral and episcopal schools.
During the era of the formation of a three-level education system in Byzantium, grammar schools appeared (church and secular, private and public). Grammar schools meaningfully enriched the program of the seven liberal arts.
In the Islamic world, two levels of education have developed. The initial level of education was provided by religious schools at mosques, opened for the children of artisans, merchants, and wealthy peasants (kitab). The second level of education was received in educational circles at mosques (fiqh and kalam). Here they studied Sharia (Islamic law) and theology, as well as Arabic philosophy, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. In addition, there were four types of schools for primary and advanced primary education: Koranic schools, Persian schools, Persian and Koranic schools, Arabic schools for adults.
During the Middle Ages (XIII-XIV centuries), from the apprenticeship system in Europe, guild and guild schools arose, as well as counting schools for the children of merchants and artisans, in which training was conducted in native language. At the same time, city schools for boys and girls appeared, where teaching was conducted in both the native and Latin languages, and the training was of an applied nature (in addition to Latin, they studied arithmetic, elements of office work, geography, technology, and natural sciences ). In the process of differentiation of urban schools, Latin schools emerged, which provided advanced education and served as a link between primary and higher education. For example, in France such schools are called colleges. From the middle of the 15th century, colleges were organized at universities. Over time, they grew into modern colleges or general educational institutions.
The development of the Western European school in the period from the 15th to the first third of the 17th century is closely related to the transition of feudal society to industrial society. This transition had a certain impact on the formation of schools of three main types, respectively focused on elementary, general advanced and higher education.
In Catholic and Protestant countries, the number of urban primary schools established by authorities and religious communities grew. For example, small schools in France, corner schools in Germany. However, the Roman Catholic Church lagged behind the Protestant Church in the process of organizing elementary education. Therefore, in all Catholic parishes, Sunday schools were opened for the lower strata of the population and primary educational institutions for the nobility. And also pious schools were created for the poor.
Throughout the XV-XVII centuries, the place of the teacher-priest in primary school gradually takes professional teacher who received special education and training. In this regard, it changes social status teachers. Previously, he lived on offerings from the community and parishioners. Since the end of the 16th century, the teacher’s work was paid by the community. At the same time, improvements have been made in the organization of the educational process: textbooks and blackboards appear in classrooms.
To educational institutions of advanced general education of the XV-XVII centuries. relative to strength:
city (Latin) schools, gymnasiums (in Germany in Strasbourg, Goldelberg and other cities);
grammar and public schools (in England in Winchester, Eton, London);
colleges (in France at the Sorbonne and the University of Navarre, in Bordeaux, Vendôme, Metz, Chatillon, Paris, Toulouse);
Hieronymite schools (religious community of brothers of common life);
noble (palace) schools (in Germany and Italy), Jesuit schools (in Vienna, Rome, Paris).
In the period from the 17th to the 18th centuries, due to the increased influence of secular education, the classical school became the main form of education. First of all, the classical school focused on the study of ancient languages and literature:
in Germany - city (Latin) school (later - real school) and gymnasium;
in England - grammar and public (boarding houses for children of the elite of society) school;
in France - college and lyceum;
in the USA - a grammar school and academy.
In the process of development of school education, each type was enriched and improved pedagogically, and also acquired national features and characteristics.
In the 19th century, the legal foundations of the school were laid in Western Europe and the USA. Thus, the class of industrial bourgeoisie, dominant in society, sought to strengthen its position in the future. In the leading industrial countries, the formation of a national school education system and the expansion of state participation in pedagogical process(its management, in the relationship between private and public schools, in resolving the issue of separating the school from the church). As a result, state bureaus, councils, departments, committees, and ministries of education were created. All educational institutions were subject to state control. During the 19th century, a differentiation was made into classical and modern schools. Thus, the following were organized:

Neoclassical gymnasium, real school and mixed school in Germany;
municipal colleges and lyceums in France;
academies and additional educational institutions (high schools) in the USA.
As a result of historical school reforms in the 20th century, the foundations of compulsory free primary education and paid (with the exception of the USA and France: in the USA there is a state system of free education up to 16-18 years of age, in France education in secondary school has become partially free since the early 1940s) state secondary education; the privilege of wealthy sections of society to a full and high-quality education has been preserved; the primary education program was expanded; intermediate types of schools have appeared, connecting primary and secondary education; The secondary science education program was expanded.
In the USA, two principles of school organization are currently being implemented: 8 years of education (primary education) + 4 years (secondary education) and 6 years (primary) + 3 years (junior education). high school) + 3 years (senior secondary school, as well as private schools and elite academies).
In England there are two types of comprehensive schools - primary (from 6 to 11 years old) and secondary (from 11 to 17 years old). Children under 14 years old study for free.
Secondary educational institutions include: grammar and public (elite) schools for preparation for universities, a modern school for the middle class of British society, a central school with an emphasis on vocational training.
In France, two structures of primary education have developed: demon paid training from 6 to 14 years old, with a practical focus, and paid education from 6 to 11 years old, with continued education in secondary school. Secondary educational institutions - lyceum, college, private school (with a 7-year course of study), open the way to universities and higher technical educational institutions.
There are two school systems in Russia - state (free) and private schools. By the end of the 20th century, the following school system had developed:
primary education starting at 6 or 7 years of age (4 or 3 years of education at the choice of parents);
basic secondary school (grades 5-9);
complete secondary school (grades 10-11).
Massive educational systems function as the main educational systems in Russia. secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, laboratory schools, boarding schools (for gifted children or children with developmental disabilities).
There are the following criteria for assessing the effectiveness of a school as a social and educational institution:
correspondence of goals and results, the degree to which school graduates have mastered the educational state standard as the basic norm;
level and quality of school education and upbringing; number of medals and honors;
dropping out of school due to poor academic performance, systematic violation of rules of behavior or health reasons;
social status schools among the population and the teaching community;
percentage of graduates enrolled in universities;
the number of graduates who have become famous people within the region or country.
What are the origins and development of higher education institutions in the world?
In Ancient Greece, one of the first prototypes of higher educational institution. In the 4th century BC. e. Plato organized a philosophical school in a grove near Athens dedicated to the Academy, which was called the Academy.
The Academy existed for more than a thousand years and was closed in 529. Aristotle created another educational institution at the Temple of Lyceum Apollo in Athens - the Lyceum. At the Lyceum, special attention was paid to the study of philosophy, physics, mathematics and other natural sciences. From a historical perspective, it is the predecessor of the modern lyceum.
During the Hellenic era (308-246 BC). Ptolemy founded the Museum (from the Latin Museum - a place dedicated to the Muses). In the form of lectures, they taught the basic sciences - mathematics, astronomy, philology, natural science, medicine, history. Archimedes, Euclid, and Eratosthenes taught at the Museum. It was the Museum that was the most significant repository of books and other cultural property. Nowadays, the modern museum rather performs a second historical function, despite the fact that in recent years its educational significance has been increasing.
Other higher options educational institutions in Ancient Greece there were philosophical schools and ephebia (educational institutions with a military and sports profile).
In 425, a higher school was established in Constantinople - the Auditorium (from the Latin audire - listen), which in the 9th century was called "Magnavra" (Golden Chamber). The school was completely subordinate to the emperor and excluded any possibility of self-government. The main substructures were departments of various sciences. At the beginning, education took place in Latin and Greek, and from the 7th-8th centuries - exclusively in Greek.
In the 15th century, Latin was returned to the curriculum and new, so-called foreign languages were included. In the famous school, where the cream of the teaching elite was gathered, they studied the ancient heritage, metaphysics, philosophy, theology, medicine, music, history, ethics, politics, and jurisprudence. Classes were held in the form of public debates. Most high school graduates were encyclopedically educated and became public and church leaders. For example, Cyril and Methodius, creators Slavic writing, at one time we studied at this school. In addition to Magnavra, other higher schools operated in Constantinople: legal, medical, philosophical, patriarchal.
Almost simultaneously, in the homes of wealthy and eminent citizens of Byzantium, salon circles began to take shape - unique home academies that united people around intellectual patrons and authoritative philosophers. They were called “the school of all kinds of virtues and erudition.”
The church played a special role in the development of higher education. For example: Monastic higher schools dated back to the early Christian tradition.
In the Islamic world, the appearance of the Houses of Wisdom in Baghdad (in 800) was a remarkable event in the development of enlightenment. Major scientists and their students gathered in the Houses of Wisdom. They discussed, read and served literary works, philosophical and scientific works and treatises, prepared manuscripts, and gave lectures. In the 11th-13th centuries, new higher educational institutions - madrassas - appeared in Baghdad. Madrasahs spread throughout the Islamic world, but the most famous was the Nizameya Madrasah in Baghdad, opened in 1067. They received both religious and secular education. At the beginning of the 16th century, a hierarchy of madrassas emerged in the Middle East:
capital cities, which opened the way for graduates to an administrative career;
provincial, whose graduates, as a rule, became officials.
Muslim Spain (912-976) was a major cultural and educational center of the Islamic world. High schools in Cordoba, Salamanca, Toledo, and Seville offered programs in all branches of knowledge - theology, law, mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy. University-type schools that appeared in the East (with lecture halls, a rich library, a scientific school, and a system of self-government) became the predecessors of medieval universities in Europe. The educational practice of the Islamic world, especially the Arab one, significantly influenced the development of higher education in Europe.
Each new higher education institution necessarily created its own charter and acquired status among other educational institutions.
In India, Muslims received higher education in madrassas and monastic educational institutions (dargab).
In China, during the “golden age” (III-X centuries), university-type educational institutions appeared. In them, graduates received an academic degree of specialist in five classical treatises of Confucius: “The Book of Changes”, “The Book of Etiquette”, “Spring and Autumn”, “The Book of Poetry”, “The Book of History”.
Universities began to appear in Europe during the 12th-15th centuries. However, this process took place differently in each country. As a rule, the system of church schools acted as the source of the origin of most universities.
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, a number of cathedral and monastic schools in Europe turned into large training centers, which then became known as universities. For example, this is how the University of Paris arose (1200), which grew out of the union of the theological school of the Sorbonne with medical and law schools. Universities arose in a similar way in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), and Lisbon (1290).
The foundation and rights of the university were confirmed by privileges. Privileges were special documents that secured university autonomy (its own court, management, the right to award academic degrees, to exempt students from military service). The network of universities in Europe expanded quite quickly. If in the 13th century there were 19 universities, then by the 14th century their number increased to 44.
From the very beginning the church sought to keep university education under its influence. And in our time, the Vatican is the official patron of a number of universities. Despite these circumstances, in their organization, program and teaching methods, universities of the early Middle Ages were already an alternative to secular education to church education. Universities countered scholasticism with an active intellectual and spiritual life. It was thanks to them that the spiritual world of Europe became much richer.
The history of the first universities is closely connected with the work of thinkers who gave a new impetus to the development of culture, science and education - R. Bacon, J. Hus, A. Dante, J. Winkley, N. Copernicus, F. Petrarch.
The first universities were very mobile, since their essential feature was, to a certain extent, their supranational and democratic character. In the event of a threat of epidemic or war, the university could move to another city or even country. And international students and teachers united into national communities (nations, colleges). For example, at the University of Paris there were 4 communities: French, Picardy, English and German, and at the University of Bologna - 17.
In the second half of the 13th century, faculties or colleges appeared at universities. Faculties awarded academic degrees- first a bachelor's degree (after 3-7 years of successful study under the guidance of a professor), and then a master's, doctor or licentiate degree. Communities and faculties determined the life of the first universities and jointly elected the official head of the university, the rector. The rector had temporary powers, usually lasting one year. The actual power at the university belonged to the faculties and communities. However, this state of affairs changed by the end of the 15th century. Faculties and communities lost their former influence, and the main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities.
The very first universities had only a few faculties, but their specialization constantly deepened. For example, the University of Paris was famous for teaching theology and philosophy, the University of Oxford for canon law, the University of Orleans for civil law, the universities of Italy for Roman law, and the universities of Spain for mathematics and natural sciences.
Over the centuries, until the end of the 20th century, the network of higher education institutions expanded rapidly, today representing a wide and varied range of specializations.
The idea of a university is revealed in the very name Universitas, which in Latin means totality.
Already during the birth of universities, “totality” was given different meanings. First of all, the organizational aspect was emphasized; in fact, the result of combining different types of higher educational institutions began to be called a university. For example, the University of Paris grew out of the merger of the theological school of the Sorbonne with the medical and law schools. However, the main mission of the university was to introduce a young person to the totality of all types of knowledge. Since ancient times, the university (Alma Mater) has been a source of scientific knowledge, wisdom and enlightenment. His task was not only to preserve and transmit existing knowledge, spiritual and cultural values, and the highest examples of human activity, but also to develop the intellect for the sake of renewing culture. In the process of history, it was in universities that new knowledge was born, scientific theories and universal ideological positions were formed for understanding life, the world, space, and man. The university sought to provide a universal education to students who later became part of the elite of society (scientists, statesmen and public figures).
As a rule, one more aspect of the “totality” is identified, which relates to the principles of organizing university education. First of all, these include those principles that ensure the continuity of scientific creativity: teaching scientific fundamentals and methods of knowledge, introducing students to research activities.
The main principles of university education (S.I. Gessen) are:

The completeness of scientific knowledge presented at the university;
the spirit of freedom and creativity in the teaching and learning process;
the ability of the university to replenish itself through the training of teachers and scientists.
These principles are inherent in any university, regardless of the historical era and the nature of its development. It should be noted that the understanding of science, university self-government and freedom has changed historically.
How do we understand the completeness of representation of scientific knowledge at the university?
Since the time of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the “university” has symbolized the organic integrity of science itself. Therefore, the main task of the university is to awaken the idea of science in young people, to help them bring this idea to a specific field of knowledge. Becoming a scientist is like acquiring a “second nature” or the ability to perceive the world through the optics of science, take into account the unity and integrity of knowledge, conduct independent research and strive for a genuine discovery (F. Schleiermacher). Since science constantly gives birth to new branches of knowledge, no university can achieve the completeness of scientific knowledge.
Typically, a given university is strong in several specializations.
The completeness of science is understood as the entire set of branches of scientific knowledge known in the world, because only this moment provides the possibility of close interaction and cooperation (S. I. Gessen). The great task of the university is to maintain lively interaction between researchers from all branches of knowledge, leading to a common goal (G. Helmholtz). It is at the university that the completeness of developing science provides, on the one hand, the breadth of outlook of the future specialist, and on the other hand, creates the basis for the development of individual branches of knowledge.
The meaning of the completeness of science is revealed through the content of the university course, namely: theoretical, applied and experimental directions of developing science as the basis of an academic discipline. However, the relationship between theory and practice in a particular university course or cycle of disciplines can be different, which affects the level of education and the specifics of specialist training.
In a university setting, the completeness of knowledge is also manifested in the fact that this term includes knowledge of the fundamentals of the humanities and natural sciences; knowledge about nature, man and society; general educational knowledge and serious theoretical training within a specific specialization.
The dual freedom of teaching and learning at the university as a “natural element of the university” depends on understanding the essence of the completeness of knowledge and the criteria of scientific character.
How is the idea of freedom of a university teacher realized within the framework of the unity of research and teaching? Is the university course academic or scientific? What is the relationship between a systematic training course consisting of lectures and seminars, the purpose of which is to impart scientific knowledge and stimulate the search for new ones, and scientific course how to organize research and search for ways to solve scientific problems?
The answers to these questions are provided by the experience of individual universities. In some universities, the professor does not “teach” the subject, but publicly expresses his scientific views. Accordingly, the student does not study so much as engage in scientific activity. As a result, the number of scientific training courses is directly dependent on the scientific areas being developed. In addition, each professor uses his own style and teaching method due to the individual nature of all creativity. However, intense scientific activity requires systematic knowledge of various theories and directions in the development of thought. Therefore, a modern university maintains, along with freedom of learning, various programs of scientific, subject and professional teaching that have general cultural significance.
In the process of university development, the problem of teaching freedom has always been raised. World experience demonstrates different ways to solve it. Some universities prefer a brilliant speaker and lecturer, a skillful promoter of scientific achievements who knows how to arouse students' interest in learning the truth. Others see the university not so much as an educational institution, but as a privileged guild organization (I. G. Fichte) or a higher scientific school that discovers scientific truths and tests the results of the latest discoveries. However, modern universities prepare their graduates not only for research activities, but also for various professional responsibilities. At the same time, the traditional - spiritual and cultural mission of universities remains unchanged. According to S.I. Gessen, “only science should determine it (the university) in its inner being, and not the interests of the state, religion, sect and party extraneous to science.” Therefore, all universities in the world are united in the main idea, which is their emergence as a scientific and intellectual center for the development of any society.
A distinctive feature of the university is its ability to replenish itself from the circle of its students, symbolizing the potential for self-development and freedom of science. Thus, the university is an inherently autonomous union of scientists, in the literal sense of the word “self-continuing union” (S. I. Gessen). It is no coincidence that the university does not tolerate even the most benevolent authorities, since it is the last step in the hierarchy of scientific education.
Throughout the long process of development of university education, historically changing types of paradigms can be identified. Each of them was formed depending on the dominance in a certain era of the ideal “image” of universal knowledge.
In the process of developing university education, the “cultural-value” paradigm is based on the development of universal elements of culture and values of past generations through a systematic and in-depth study of the works of great thinkers (initially in Latin and Greek). It focuses on a comprehensive knowledge of the world. Within this paradigm, graduates of the first universities received the highest title of educated person - philosopher or theologian. The educational strategy associated with mastering the cultural heritage of the past, spiritual values and scientific achievements that have received worldwide recognition, up to our time, belongs to the phenomenon of classical education.
The “academic” paradigm is characterized by the priority in university education of theoretical knowledge and the development of fundamental sciences, a focus on preparing university graduates to search for new knowledge, understand and explain the world and human actions from the standpoint of science, theory, and hypothesis.
Within this paradigm, the main value is scientific knowledge about nature and animals, earth and space, man and society, life and death. Based on the type and quality of mastering scientific knowledge, as a result of fundamental and applied research by university professors, the following types of university education began to be distinguished: biological, mathematical, philological, physical, chemical. The university's academic tradition recognizes the systematic and in-depth study of the fundamental principles of science, which involves the direct participation of the student in the process of scientific research.
The essence of the “professional” paradigm was manifested in the enrichment and expansion of the content of university education. Science has ceased to be valuable in itself as a way of knowing and explaining the world. It also began to perform the function of a productive force, developing technology and production. As a result, the university began to concentrate and expand not only the range of scientific knowledge, but also the highest examples of sociocultural and professional human activity. From that time on, the university began to receive higher medical, legal, economic, pedagogical, engineering and other higher professional education as a response to the social order of the state and society.
The “technocratic” paradigm of university education comes to the fore in XIX-XX centuries as a unique worldview, the essential features of which are: the primacy of technology and technology over scientific and cultural values, the narrowly pragmatic orientation of higher education and the development of scientific knowledge.
When determining the goals and content of university education within the framework of this paradigm, the interests of production, economics and business, the development of technology and means of civilization dominate. In this regard, in the 20th century, the humanitarian and natural science components of university education underwent significant changes.
An alternative to the technocratic and pragmatic challenge has become the humanistic orientation of university education.
The human personality with its abilities and interests represents the main value of the “humanistic” paradigm. In a university setting, all students must receive a universal education and choose a field of professional activity not only on the basis of social significance, but also on a vocation that ensures personal self-realization.
Models of university education were formed under the influence of the dominant educational paradigm and a range of various factors.
The first two models differ in terms of target orientation and specificity of the dominant content of university education.
The traditional, or classical, model is a system of academic education as a process of transferring to the younger generation universal elements of culture, knowledge and achievements of science, highest examples and methods of human activity. This model should lay the foundation for the manifestation of creativity for the benefit of the further development of society, the state, science, technology and culture. As a rule, it is focused on preparing a promising, highly educated and cultural person of the future society. The goals and content of education of the classical model presuppose an optimal correspondence of the past, present and future in the world of science, culture, technology and human life.
The rationalistic model of university education is organizationally focused on successful adaptation to modern society and civilization, high quality of universal training, deep specialization in the field of future professional activity, readiness for creative mastery and development of promising technologies.
From the point of view of the development of university education as a sociocultural phenomenon, two more models of university development can be distinguished based on the characteristics of “involvement in social structures” and “management method”. Accordingly, these are models of the university as a state-departmental organization and as an autonomous higher educational institution, independent of the state and other social institutions.
In the first case, university education is organized with a centralized determination of the goals and content of education through state educational standards, a nomenclature of specialties and specializations, curricula and disciplines, standards for assessing the level of education of graduates and methods of control by management bodies.
The second model (of an autonomous university) involves the organization of education within its own infrastructure through diverse cooperation of the activities of university subsystems of different types, levels and ranks. The Autonomous University, like the first universities of the Middle Ages, is guided by its Charter and relies on its own resources.
The type of university as a higher education institution determines the type or type of modern university education.
Nowadays, all over the world and in Russia, humanitarian, technical, pedagogical, medical universities, University of Technology and Design. In connection with such diversity, on the one hand, there is a tendency to erode the essence of university education, and on the other hand, the transformation of all types of higher educational institutions into a unified type of higher education for the whole world - the university. However, regardless of the ways of development of the university in the future, the words of our contemporary D.S. Likhachev will remain relevant: “The university - be it for chemists, physicists, mathematicians, lawyers - always teaches the multidimensionality of life and creativity, tolerance for the incomprehensible and an attempt to comprehend the boundless and diverse.” .
The process of human mastery and creation of cultural values elevates the university to the heights of human achievement. This is also due to the fact that the content of university education is continuously replenished from the cultural heritage of all countries and peoples, from various branches of science, life and human practice. Therefore, higher education becomes a necessary and important factor in the development of both individual spheres (economics, politics, culture, science) and the whole society.
Universities concentrate the highest examples of sociocultural, educational, educational and research activities of a person of a certain era.
In the 20th century, along with qualitative and structural changes in the university and university education, the type of scientific character and research activity changed. Scientificity, exemplified by traditionally established disciplines (philosophy, mathematics, physics, biology, medicine), is complemented by new sciences (psychology, genetics, sociology, biophysics, computer science), as well as various forms integration (philosophy of education, pedagogical psychology, physical chemistry). Therefore, the content of university education is constantly changing; specializations and areas of training of specialists; the ratio of fundamental courses and applied disciplines; orientation of faculties, departments, scientific fields.
And each academic discipline, educational technology, the sphere of communication between students and teachers, the personality of the teacher as a scientist and teacher and other factors are of great importance in the general cultural, professional, intellectual and personal development of university graduates.
The development of universities is determined by the influence of world, national and even regional culture, including the ethnography of the region and the value attitude towards education and science.
How do you assess the development of the higher education system as a whole and the university as the most common type of higher education institution in the world?
To assess the development of the higher education system in the country, the following parameters of degrees of compliance are used:
educational policy in the training of highly qualified professionals and the real need for specialists for the specific historical period of development of the state and society;
goals of education, standards of higher education and the results obtained;
state and other sources of financing of higher educational institutions;
the ratio of state, public and private universities in the country;
quality and level of higher education to world standards;
openness of the higher education system when entering the global educational space;
guidelines for international standards and preservation of established traditions.
In world and domestic practice, when assessing the effectiveness of university development, certain groups of criteria and indicators are used:
the level of development of scientific schools and their completeness according to the modern classification of sciences;
the degree of compliance of the general cultural component of university education with fundamental and special research;
openness of the university to innovation and adaptation of global experience;
level of material, technical, scientific and methodological support;
sources and possibilities of financing;
quality of provision of professional teaching staff, staffing of teaching staff through postgraduate and doctoral studies;
level of specialist training;
number of students per teacher;
area of educational premises per student;
graduates’ choice of professional and research activities.

The history of the development of primary, secondary and higher schools not only continues the traditions of a particular country, but also becomes part of the world experience. Therefore, they speak both about the general trends in the development of schools and higher educational institutions, and about the national education system of a particular country.
In the course of history, special types of educational systems have developed in different countries. Throughout the world, however, the university has been accepted as the universal type of higher education.
The effectiveness of a school or university is judged by criteria and indicators generally accepted in world practice.
The relationship between university education, science and culture is considered in different aspects:

In a historical context that includes specific social institutions as areas of human development and education;
within the framework of the cultural paradigm of higher education;
in the conditions of the cultural and historical type of the university as an educational system;
as models of global and national university education:
through analysis of curricula, disciplines, educational programs in the university system;
training of qualified specialists;
describing and predicting the image of a university graduate as a cultured and educated person of a particular historical era;
through revealing the specifics of the university environment;
generalization, preservation and revival of cultural and educational traditions at the university;
through innovative processes in the higher education system.
The criteria for assessing the effectiveness of a university include two groups of indicators: one - for assessing the university within the country and the entire higher education system, the other - for assessing the characteristics and dynamics of the development of the university.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Reveal the main stages of development of school and school education.
2. Name the types of schools that existed in world practice. Which of them function in modern Russia?
3. Name the main trends in the development of schools in the 20th century.
4. How do modern school education systems in the most developed countries differ?
5. What criteria are used to evaluate the effectiveness of a modern school?
6. Is it possible to evaluate schools from other historical periods in the development of society using these criteria?
7. Name the world's first higher education institutions.
8. How does a university differ from other types of higher education institutions?
9. What are the main features of a university?
10. What is more important for a modern university graduate: scientific maturity or professional and practical readiness to fulfill their social role. What is the relationship between them?
11. Can university policy be guided only by the needs of the present?