home / Success stories/ Abstract: The formation of the Mongol state and the Mongol conquests. The struggle of the peoples of Rus' against the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The reasons for the aggressive successes of the Mongol-Tatars

Abstract: The formation of the Mongol state and the Mongol conquests. The struggle of the peoples of Rus' against the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The reasons for the aggressive successes of the Mongol-Tatars

Basic social groups	Their composition	Functions
Privileged social groups	The top clergy (before the adoption of Christianity - the Magi, pagan priests, from the 10th century - the Orthodox clergy), princes, boyars (senior warriors), the top merchants.	Ownership and disposal of property, participation in company management.
Free population ("people")	Rural community members, urban artisans, traders, ordinary warriors, priests, monks	Creation of wealth, payment of taxes, participation in solving problems of society, in military campaigns
Dependent population	Ryadovichi are dependent under a contract (“row”). Purchases - having a farm and working off a debt (“kupa”) - grain, livestock, tools. Servants - slaves from among prisoners of war, domestic servants. Serfs are slaves from the local population. Sources of servitude: entering the service without a rank (contract), marrying a servant. Smerdas are prisoners of war, slaves imprisoned on the ground, military servants of the prince. There is an opinion that smerds are semi-free people who performed duties in favor of the prince and paid him tribute. Smerdas are all peasants who paid state taxes (tribute).	Fulfillment of duties arising from dependency relationships
Marginal (side) elements	Outcasts are people who broke with their community and left it: peasants expelled from the community; bankrupt merchants; princes "without a place."	Fight for survival

Reasons for the Mongol conquests:

Natural climatic factor: the climate is becoming drier and less favorable for extensive cattle breeding

Demographic factor: overpopulation of the Steppe

The socio-economic factor is the desire of the tribal nobility to enrich themselves;

The personality of Genghis Khan.

1206 - Timuchin (Temujin) was proclaimed Genghis Khan (Great Khan) at the kurultai (congress) of noyons (tribal nobility).

1211 – seizure of the lands of the Buryats, Yakuts, Kyrgyz, Uyghurs;

1217 – conquest of Northern China;

1219-1221 – conquest of Northern Asia.

1220-1222 – invasion of Transcaucasia, Iran;

1223 - invasion of the Polovtsian steppes and the battle on the Kalka River, which ended in the defeat of the united Russian-Polovtsian troops

Campaigns of Khan Batu (grandson of Genghis Khan)

1236 – conquest and defeat of Volga Bulgaria;

1237-1240 – conquest of Russian lands;

1237-1238 – the first campaign of Khan Batu;

1237 – ruin of the Ryazan principality;

1238 – destruction of Kolomna and Moscow;

1238 – battle on the river City, which ended with the defeat of the squads of the Vladimir, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich and Yuryev principalities;

1238 – capture of Torzhok, which defended for two weeks. Before reaching Novgorod 110 versts, the Mongols turned south, where they defeated Kozelsk (“evil city”), Nizhny Novgorod, Murom;

1239-1240 – new campaign of Khan Batu to the south:

1239 – capture of Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny and Chernigov;

1240 - the ruin of Kyiv;

1241 – invasion of the Galicia-Volyn principality.

1241-1242 – attempted invasion of Eastern Europe (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic).

The main reasons for the success of the Mongol conquerors.

As a rule, the Mongol army had a numerical superiority over the armies of the agricultural states;

Excellent fighting qualities of the Mongolian army: maneuverability, clear organization: uniting warriors into tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands (tumen, or darkness); strict discipline; good combat training of warriors.

The Mongols' use of military-technical achievements of other peoples (especially Chinese siege equipment).

The disunity of the forces of the opponents of the Mongols (many of them, including Rus', were experiencing a period of political fragmentation.

Intimidating the enemy through terror.

Education of the Golden Horde. Rus' and the Horde.

1243 - the formation by the Mongols on the southeastern borders of Rus', in the steppe lower reaches of the Volga, of a new state - the Golden Horde (translated as camp, nomadic camp, courtyard).

Composition: Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, North Caucasus, Crimea, Irtysh steppes to the Danube.

Capital – Saray (palace) - Batu (Old Saray, Astrakhan region);

From the first half of the 14th century. – Saray Berke (New Saray, Volgograd region)

Formally, the Russian lands were not directly included in the territory of the Golden Horde, but the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands recognized the supreme power of the Great Khan of the Golden Horde. The Baskaks were sent to the Russian lands, demanding that the princes appear before Batu with an expression of submission. Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who remained the eldest among the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, in 1243 was the first to go to the Horde to bow to Batu Khan.

He was forced to submit to the pagan rite of the Horde: to walk between two fires and under the “yoke” (crossed spears) to bow to the shadow of Gengistakh. Having performed this ritual and received a label (letter) from the khan for the great reign, the prince recognized his vassal (subordinate) position in relation to the rulers of the Golden Horde. Thus the Golden Horde (Horde) yoke was established, which lasted until 1480. A sovereign, politically independent, independent state on political map Europe is gone.

Manifestations of the Horde yoke

Political sphere	Economic sphere	Spiritual realm
Receiving labels for reign by Russian princes from the Horde khans. Terror against Russian princes: destruction of undesirables, hostage taking. Punitive raids on Russian lands (about 50 during the yoke), among them: 1252 - Nevryuev's army (campaign in the Suzdal land), 1258 - Burundaev's army (campaign in the Galician land). 1293 - Dudenev's army (ruin of 14 cities of North-Eastern Rus'). Inciting civil strife to increase fragmentation. Tightening of Russian legislation: strengthening personal power the Grand Duke and the lack of rights of landowners.	Payment of annual tribute - output (food, handicrafts, money, slaves), as well as other taxes: requests - extraordinary payments, funerals - gifts to the khan, his relatives, associates. Maintenance of the administrative apparatus, Horde ambassadors and their retinue in Russian lands. Fulfillment of natural duties: transportation, construction, supply of Russian soldiers to the Mongolian troops, etc. The theft of specialists and artisans into the Horde - the disappearance of a number of complex crafts and the cessation of stone construction for several decades. Creation of privileged conditions for Horde merchants.	Granting special status to the Russian Orthodox Church, the khan’s use of the Christian idea of humility to subjugate the Russians. The influence of the Horde foundations on life, speech (the appearance in the Russian language of words of Turkic origin - “shackles”, “whip”, “bondage”), customs, morality of the Russians. Suppressing the will of the population to resist through terror.

Consequences of the Mongol invasion and the Horde yoke for Russian lands

Migration (relocation, relocation) of the population to the northern regions.

Decline of old agricultural centers and cities.

Desolation of previously developed fertile lands (Wild Field).

The destruction of cities. Simplification and coarsening of the craft.

Slowing down the development of commodity-money relations.

Numerous civilian casualties.

Conservation of political fragmentation.

Bringing oriental elements into political system The Moscow state: authoritarianism, strict vertical subordination, punitive apparatus, etc.

Separation various parts former Kievan Rus.

Severance or weakening of traditional political and cultural ties with other countries.

Strengthening the position and influence of the Russian Orthodox Church, which played an important role in the unity and survival of the Russian people.

Slowdown of the pace of cultural development.

Points of view of historians on the relationship between Rus' and the Horde in the XIII - XV centuries.

1. The yoke was a great disaster for Rus': political, tributary, military dependence of Rus' on the Horde.

2. There was no yoke in Rus': there were allied relations between Rus' and the Horde - Rus' paid tribute, and the Horde in return ensured the security of the Russian principalities.

3. The Yoke is a specific period in the history of Rus': the country was divided into two parts - the peaceful civilian population was ruled by princes; a permanent army - the Horde - was controlled by military leaders.

Expansion from the West in the 13th century.

Goals of Swedish and German knights

Lack of land in Europe for younger representatives of knightly families and peasants - the seizure of new territories.

Conversion of pagans (Balts) and Orthodox (Russians) to Catholicism.

The invasion of the Swedish fleet and landing on the shore at the mouth of the Neva River with the aim of capturing the cities of Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod.

1240 – Battle of the Neva.

The tactics of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich - an unexpected and lightning-fast attack on the Swedes, blocked the Swedes' retreat to the ships, divided the enemy troops into parts with infantry and cavalry.

The meaning of the battle - the shores Gulf of Finland remained behind Russia, which made it possible to maintain trade with European countries. Northwestern Rus' was able to concentrate all its forces against the German knights.

CHAPTER XII

MONGOL CONQUESTS IN THE 13th century.

One of the main events in the history of Eurasia in the 13th century, which radically influenced the historical destinies of many peoples of the continent, was the Mongol conquest. Accompanied by numerous human casualties and destruction, these conquests led to the formation of the first world-system, which united large regional economic “nuclei” (Europe, Islam, India, China, the Golden Horde), and largely determined the modern ethnic map of Eurasia, because it was as a result of them many modern peoples(Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Siberian, Kazan, Crimean Tatars, Nogais, Karakalpaks, Kirghiz), and other peoples acquired a modern appearance.

ABOUT THE REASONS OF THE MONGOL CONQUESTS

It should be noted that in the 12th century. the nomads of Mongolia lived poorly not only because of the harsh climatic conditions. Social existence itself was difficult due to constant wars. On the one hand, tribal clashes never ceased, and on the other, the nomads were threatened by the powerful, predatory Kinh empire.

In the 12th century. There were constant small and large inter-tribal and inter-clan wars. They could fight over stolen livestock or women, less often over pasture lands, and also because of blood feud. Mutual cattle rustling, kidnapping and murder were the norm of life for nomads of the 12th century. But, on the one hand, not everyone liked this, and on the other, it divided the nomads and made them weak in the face of an external enemy - the Jurchens.

Agricultural and pastoral people of the Tungus-Manchu language group- The Jurchens (the ancestors of the modern Manchus) were subordinate to the Khitan Liao Empire until the twenties of the 12th century. But the Things weakened, their state weakened, and another uprising brought freedom to the Jurchens. Moreover, they themselves conquered Northern China and created the Golden Empire there - Kin (modern Chinese Jin), and in their language - Aisin Gurun.

According to Men-da Bei-lu, the ruler of the Jurchens, deciding that wild nomads could pose a threat to his borders, ordered to attack them and reduce their numbers. The author of the source further reports that the so-called campaigns to “reduce the adult population” were carried out every few years. Adult nomads were destroyed, and their children were enslaved. In those days, in a rare Chinese estate of any size, there were no child slaves from the “northern barbarians.” It goes on to say that the nomads migrated to the north and “the thirst for revenge penetrated their brains and blood.” Genghis Khan hated the Jurchens for their atrocities and even, as the author of the source reports, started a war with Kin because of this. Ambagai Khan tells in detail about the atrocities of the Jurchens and their murder of the influential leader of the Mongols - a relative of Temujin - " Secret history Mongols." He, having gone to see off his daughter, who had been married to a noble representative of the Tatars, was captured by another Tatar tribe and handed over to the Jurchens. They put the khan to a painful execution - they nailed him to a wooden donkey and left him to die. Of course, the relatives of the executed man, including his close descendant Temujin, found themselves in a state of blood enmity towards the Jurchens.

Let us note once again: the Jurchen emperors pursued a deliberate policy of exterminating the Mongols and other nomads.

According to Men-da Bei-lu, even Temujin himself spent 11 years in Jurchen captivity. Only one source reports about this unpleasant period in the life of the great ruler, but this message fills a gap in the biography of Genghis Khan, where it is unclear what happened to him in the years between his defeat of one of the Tatar tribes and the Battle of Koyten (1201). Temujin was not killed, as L.N. assumed. Gumilyov, because of his Jin title, granted for the defeat of the Tatar tribe, or because of his influence on the nomads, which was beneficial to the Jurchens (this is the assumption of A.A. Domanin).

Even after 1206, the Jurchens sent a representative to the Steppe and demanded tribute, which Genghis Khan rejected.

All of the above quite clearly shows that the widespread idea that the Mongols waged wars solely for predatory motives is, to put it mildly, not indisputable. However, this does not prevent us from painting the history of the Mongol conquests as if from scratch: as if the Mongols united into one state and, for no apparent reason, attacked their southern neighbors in 1211, and the previous century of their relations with their “peace-loving” neighbors is completely discarded.

The situation around Khorezm looks just as ambiguous.

If we compare real facts, and not speculate about Genghis Khan’s plans to conquer the world, then the following picture is visible. Khorezmshah was thinking of conquering China, however, upon learning that it had already been partially conquered by the Mongols, he sent an ambassador to Beijing. He was well received by Genghis Khan, gifted, and received a message for the Shah, which proposed dividing the “spheres of influence” (Genghis is the ruler of the East, Muhammad is the ruler of the West) and establishing trade. Despite this, in 1216 on the Irgiz River, when the Mongols defeated the Merkits, they were attacked without any reason by the troops of the Khorezmshah, who had the nickname Gazi (“Conqueror of the Infidels”). However, the aggressors were rebuffed. Despite this, the Mongols do not start a war with a strong (seemingly) neighbor, but are trying to establish trade relations (the Uyghur merchants who voluntarily joined Genghis Khan especially wanted this). But in 1218, the chief of the city of Otrar, a relative of the Shah’s mother, killed Mongolian (Uyghur) merchants and took their goods for himself. He motivated his actions by the fact that the merchants were allegedly engaged in espionage (evidence received from the enemy of the Mongols cannot in itself claim complete reliability). But even after this, the Mongols, busy at war with their ancient enemies the Jurchens, tried to maintain peace. Sending merchants specifically to spy, and then using their execution as a pretext for war is also problematic: will hundreds of Muslim merchants risk their heads for the khan, going to death when they need trade?... An embassy arrived in Khorezm, but the Khorezmshah killed the ambassadors. After this, the Mongols were forced to start a war (after all, not avenging the treacherous murder of friends and loved ones was a violation of the ideals of which Yasa was an expression). As reported in paragraph 254 of the “Secret History”, Genghis Khan stated: “I will go to war against the Sartaul people and with legal revenge I will avenge a hundred of my ambassadorial people.” It is interesting to note this: these words of Chingis are conveyed by the author of the source, who, apparently, was a representative of the military elite and a patriot, not a pacifist at all. It is unlikely that he would need such justifications for the invasion.

It can be assumed that some of the ambassadors actually spied (this, however, was the traditional occupation of merchants in different countries different eras), and that among them there were suicides who sacrificed themselves to incite a conflict (which is already unlikely, because they were all Muslims, and would hardly have taken risks, much less sacrificed themselves for the sake of the cause of war and the plans of the pagan khan) . However, this assumption also shows that even Genghis Khan needed some plausible reason for the general mobilization of nomads. The author of “The Secret History...” reports the reason for the war with the Sarts (Khorezm): revenge for the murder Mongolian ambassadors. This means that at least some of the nomads went to war precisely out of a desire to take revenge on the offenders (the Jurchens, the Khorezmshah), but not with the idea of conquering the world. The author of “The Secret History...” was proud of the successes of Mongolian weapons and would hardly have sought excuses for an ordinary predatory campaign. However, he specifically reports revenge for the ambassadors as the cause of the war.

Mercantile considerations can also be added to the reasons for the war. After all, the Khorezmshah made it clear that Mongolian merchants were not welcome in his place, so there was no longer any need to worry too much about trade (at best, the “Otrar” incidents could have been repeated, and the Khorezmians would have fought very hard for transit). A lot was stolen in China, but it was impossible to sell it or exchange it for Central Asian goods; but it was possible to take them as trophies and tribute.

To this it must be added that in Central Asia the Mongols fought the same way as in China - with the conquerors, because The Khorezmshah dynasty, whose representatives brutally conquered the Middle East in the previous decades, came from the Mamluks, i.e. “battle serfs” of the Seljukids, essentially diethized Turks, who relied on the nomadic tribes of the steppe, who treated the settled population with contempt. Constant wars interfered economic development region (although its condition on the eve of the Mongol invasion was relatively good), the population of which was oppressed by the ferocious ghouls. This is not very similar to the prosperous agricultural civilization that the Mongols allegedly plunged into ruin.

Of course, during this and subsequent wars, the Mongols caused a lot of destruction and killed many thousands of people, but in those days wars were constant, and the same Muhammad, shortly before the fateful 1219, flooded Iran and Iraq with blood. Or here is an example of the Caucasian countries, allegedly devastated by the Mongols: no less (if not more) damage was caused to them by Jelal ad-Din who retreated there; The Armenian chronicles speak eloquently about this, and even earlier, the Polovtsian refugees. However, in the 19th century. everything was blamed on the Mongols.

Therefore, we need to be very careful about statements that Genghis Khan allegedly wanted to conquer the world: we don’t know this for sure, and we will never know. And the logic of the events that took place in the first quarter of the bloody XIII century paints a slightly different picture: at first the Mongols were forced to wage offensive wars to repel strong aggressors, namely the Jurchens and Khorezmians. And only decades later, the aged comrades of Genghis Khan and their children, who grew up in an atmosphere imbued with the idea of the invincibility of the Mongols, have a desire to continue the wars and see to what limits of the world their military luck can take them. A similar interpretation of the reasons for the late Mongol conquests is given by the Dalmatian chronicler Thomas of Split, a contemporary of the Mongol invasion of Europe: “Seeing that fate brought him (the Mongol ruler) success in all wars, he became extremely swaggering and arrogant. And, believing that in the whole world there was no people or country that could resist his power, he planned to receive trophies of glory from all nations. He wanted to prove to the whole world great power his power..."

The march of Jebe and Subetei through the Caucasus to the southern Russian steppes looks just as ambiguous. It is quite possible that this was a maneuver, the purpose of which was to enter the rear of the Kipchaks - the enemies of the Mongols, who had been waging war with the Mongols for several years. The clash with the Russian princes was provoked by the princes themselves: the Mongols faced a country with a population of six million, strong cities and developed handicraft production, so the Mongols tried to the last to keep the Russians from acting on the side of the Polovtsy-Kypchaks; however, the Russian princes killed the Mongol ambassadors and went against the Mongols. Moreover, judging by the tone of the Russian chronicles, the treachery and carelessness of the princes in relation to the unknown people was condemned by many contemporaries, in particular by the chroniclers.

It must be recalled that the Mongolian ulus itself arose in many respects not even for the exploitation of its neighbors, but for protection from them. This is what manifested itself in relations with Jin and Khorezm. However, where are the manifestations of the xenocratic nature of the nomadic Mongol statehood? Nomadic empires are based on and for the remote exploitation of sedentary neighbors. Those. Eke Mongol ulus was not a priori a peaceful polity. Of course, China and Khorezm could have been enough for the Mongols. But until a certain time and for certain people. The descendants of Jochi, for example, inherited rather poor steppe lands with a nomadic population and the opportunity to expand them to the west (and in the east and southwest everything had already been divided). Therefore, the Jochids clearly would not have abandoned an all-empire campaign.

Regarding Batu's invasion and Mongol yoke in Rus' we can say with confidence that this is very old theory, accepted without any criticism. But can it be considered scientific theory such without its critical understanding? No. The position of L.N. Gumilyov (very biased and subjective) helped to critically examine and correct it, which was that the Mongol invasion was also caused by the aggressiveness of the Russians, the murder of ambassadors, and the conquest and yoke did not bring such large-scale destruction and negative consequences as is customary count, and even defended Rus' from Western aggression. There is no space here to discuss all of L.N. Gumilyov’s views on the Mongol conquests (although they largely determined the above considerations). Let us only note that it is precisely regarding Batu’s invasion that the scientist’s position is the weakest and does not stand up to criticism.

First, there are no sources that provide the reasons for the attack, or through which probable causes can be traced (as in the case of China and Khorezm). However, European contemporaries wrote about the Mongols’ desire to take over the world.

Secondly, Gumilyov is undoubtedly biased, which already necessitates a critical perception of his ideas. The explanation for the attack as revenge 14 years later for the murder of the Mongolian ambassadors seems far-fetched (this explanation looks especially ridiculous in relation to Kozelsk).

Thirdly, the xenocratic nature of nomadic empires created for the remote exploitation of neighbors does not imply long-term peaceful coexistence between nomads and sedentary people. In the case of China, this has always been complicated by the traditionally hostile attitude of the Chinese towards barbarians and prohibitions on trade. In the case of Russia, it is impossible to talk about any relations at all, because the Mongols have only just advanced to its borders.

Fourthly, the invasion did not at all resemble revenge. The Mongols immediately demanded tithes in men, weapons and horses, and destroyed cities that opposed them. These were precisely the actions of the conquerors, aimed at demonstrating their unconditional military superiority and robbery.

Fifthly, there is a result - the Golden Horde. The probable desire of the Jochids to provide themselves with rich inheritances is precisely manifested here.

Thus, it can be established that there were several goals that motivated the conquering nomads. This is a reflection of aggression, and a desire to take revenge on offenders, and greed, and simply coercion (in the case of a significant part of the nomads, especially non-Mongols, this could be the case).

The Mongol conquests began with the unification of the tribes, which was completely completed by Khan Temujin, today better known as Genghis Khan. It was he who was elected ruler of all the Mongols in 1206.

Beginning of the Mongol conquests - Genghis Khan

Even before the Mongol conquest of Asia began, Genghis Khan conquered the surrounding tribes - the Naimans, Kereits and Zhalairs, who partially fell under his rule and partially migrated.

To conquer all the lands of the world, as Genghis Khan intended, a powerful and disciplined army was required, on the creation of which he concentrated his efforts. The basis of the army was the cavalry, which allowed the army to move quickly and attack unexpectedly - this gave a significant military advantage. With his help, the southern part of Siberia and the northern part of China were conquered.

The Mongols mercilessly dealt with those who resisted them, but in the territories they conquered they showed rare religious tolerance, allowing people to pray to their gods.

After Genghis Khan adopted such important inventions as gunpowder and throwing weapons from the Chinese, he conquered Northern Iran and Khorezm in Central Asia.

Rice. 1. Genghis Khan.

However, he was not only a conqueror - thanks to him, the postal business developed and trade flourished. The Great Silk Road was very safe, since caravan robbers were severely punished.

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INVASION OF THE MONGOL-TATARS ON Rus', 1237-1240.

In 1237, the 75,000-strong army of Khan Batu invaded Russian borders. Hordes of Mongol-Tatars, a well-armed army of the Khan's empire, the largest in medieval history, came to conquer Rus': to wipe out rebellious Russian cities and villages from the face of the earth, impose tribute on the population and establish the power of their governors - the Baskaks - throughout the entire Russian land.

The Mongol-Tatars’ attack on Rus' was sudden, but not only this determined the success of the invasion. For a number of objective reasons, power was on the side of the conquerors, the fate of Rus' was predetermined, as was the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

By the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was a country torn into small principalities, without a single ruler or army. Behind the Mongol-Tatars, on the contrary, stood a strong and united power, approaching the peak of its power. Only a century and a half later, in 1380, in different political and economic conditions, Rus' was able to field a strong army against the Golden Horde led by a single commander - the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and move from a shameful and unsuccessful defense to active military action and achieve a devastating victory on the Kulikovo field.

Not about any unity of the Russian land in 1237-1240. there was no question, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars showed the weakness of Rus', the invasion of the enemy and the power of the Golden Horde established for two and a half centuries, the Golden Horde yoke became retribution for internecine enmity and trampling of all-Russian interests on the part of Russian princes, too keen on satisfying their political ambitions.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' was swift and merciless. In December 1237, Batu’s army burned Ryazan, and on January 1, 1238, Kolomna fell under enemy pressure. During January - May 1238, the Mongol-Tatar invasion incinerated the Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yuryev, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglitsky and Kozel principalities. In 1239 it was destroyed by Murom, a year later the inhabitants of the cities and villages of the Chernigov principality faced the misfortune of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and in September - December 1240 the ancient capital city of Rus' - Kyiv was conquered.

After the defeat of North-Eastern and Southern Rus', the countries were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Eastern Europe: Batu’s army won a number of major victories in Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, but, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, returned to the Volga region, which became the epicenter of the powerful Golden Horde.

With the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into Rus', the Golden Horde period of Russian history began: the era of the rule of Eastern despotism, oppression and ruin of the Russian people, the period of decline of the Russian economy and culture.

The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities

In the 13th century the peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors, who ruled the Russian lands until the 15th century. (last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the rise of absolutism.

In the 12th century. There was no centralized state in Mongolia; the unification of tribes was achieved in late XII V. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At the general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 he was proclaimed great khan with the name Genghis(“limitless power”).

Once the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongol army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. An imperial guard was created that controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongol cavalry prevailed in the steppe wars. She was better organized and trained than any army of nomads of the past. The reason for the success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of their rivals.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture its entire northern part. From China, the Mongols brought the newest for that time military equipment and specialists. In addition, they received a cadre of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. After Central Asia was Northern Iran captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

The Polovtsians' request to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died.

In 1227 Genghis Khan died. Ögedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongol capital Kara-korum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to Russian lands. At the head of the new campaign was Ogedei's nephew, Batu (Batu).

In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to muddy roads.

In 1240, the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here the Mongol troops moved to Galicia-Volyn Rus'. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', Western Europe only experienced an invasion and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the Mongol invasion.

The result of Batu's grandiose campaign was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Rus', the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.

After Ogedei's death in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ogedei's son Hayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He founded his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, Volga, North Caucasus, Rus'. Gradually the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.

The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army took place 14 years before Batu’s invasion. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Baghatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsians in close proximity to Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsians, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsians.

On May 31, 1223, a battle took place between Russian-Polovtsian troops and Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River near the Sea of Azov. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes died, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militiamen.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-Polish army were:

The reluctance of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);

Underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and was not properly prepared for battle);

Inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not united army, but by scattered squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads left the battle and watched from the sidelines).

Having won a victory on Kalka, the army of Subudai-Baghatur did not build on its success and went to the steppes.

4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having won a victory over the Cumans and Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Rus'.

The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:

The campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities - northeast Rus' - were conquered;

The campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which the Chernigov and Kiev principalities and other principalities of southern Rus' were conquered. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles of the war with the Mongol-Tatars are:

Defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all residents participated and died during the defense of the city;

Defense of Vladimir (1238);

Defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they nicknamed it the “evil city”;

Battle of the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;

The defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.

December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are considered to be:

Feudal fragmentation;

Lack of a single centralized state and a unified army;

Enmity between princes;

The transition of individual princes to the side of the Mongols;

The technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatars invasion for the Old Russian state.

The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were mercilessly destroyed or taken prisoner. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the lives of city residents became poorer, and many crafts were lost.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production, since the destruction of cities was accompanied by mass removals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the craft population, Russian cities lost centuries of production experience: the craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. The quality of construction subsequently also dropped significantly. The conquerors inflicted no less heavy damage on the Russian countryside and rural monasteries of Rus'. The peasants were robbed by everyone: Horde officials, numerous Khan's ambassadors, and simply regional gangs. The damage caused by the Mongol-Tatars to the peasant economy was terrible. Dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed in the war. Draft cattle were captured and driven to the Horde. Horde robbers often raked out the entire harvest from barns. Russian peasant prisoners were an important export item from the Golden Horde to the East. Ruin, constant threat, shameful slavery - this is what the conquerors brought to the Russian village. Damage caused national economy Rus''s Mongolo-Tatar conquerors did not limit themselves to devastating robberies during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values left the country in the form of “ani” and “requests”. The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. There was not enough silver for trade; there was even a “silver famine.” The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. For example, Lithuanian feudal lords used the weakening of Rus' for predatory raids. The German feudal lords also intensified the attack on the Russian lands. Russia lost the way to the Baltic Sea. In addition, the ancient ties of the Russian principalities with Byzantium were broken, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. Numerous monuments, icon paintings and architecture were destroyed in the fire of the Mongol-Tatar invasions. And also there was a decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its dawn at the beginning of Batu’s invasion.

The Mongol-Tatar conquest artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations and “mothballed” the natural economy. While the Western European states, which were not attacked, gradually moved from feudalism to capitalism, Rus', torn apart by the conquerors, retained the feudal economy. It is difficult to even imagine how dearly the campaigns of the Mongol khans would have cost humanity and how many more misfortunes, murders and destruction they could have caused if the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other peoples of our country, having exhausted and weakened the enemy, had not stopped the invasion on the borders of Central Europe.

The positive thing was that the entire Russian clergy and church people were spared from paying the heavy Tatar tribute. It should be noted that the Tatars are completely tolerant of all religions, and the Russian Orthodox Church Not only did she not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans special letters (“yarlyki”), which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. The Church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of the Russian “peasantry.”

Finally, Tatar rule separated Eastern Rus' for a long time from Western Europe, and after the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the eastern branch of the Russian people found themselves separated from its western branch for several centuries, which created a wall of mutual alienation between them. Eastern Rus', which was under the rule of the Tatars, itself turned into “Tataria” in the minds of ignorant Europeans...

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

Firstly, this is the backwardness of Rus' from European countries. Europe continued to develop, while Rus' had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

The second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Farmers also moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this delayed economic development.

Third, the slowness of cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built at all in Rus'.

Fourth – cessation of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now foreign policy Rus' was focused on Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and carried out punitive campaigns when the principalities disobeyed.

The fifth consequence is very controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved political fragmentation in Rus', others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.

What human qualities does Genghis Khan appear to have in this source? Do you find them attractive?

Genghis Khan speaks of himself as a hardy true warrior, unmercenary and a supporter of equality. These qualities command respect.

What human qualities does Genghis Khan appear to have in this source?

Here Genghis Khan is shown as a very cruel man.

Compare the findings from the two sources. What is the question? Compare it with the author’s formulation (p. 273).

Question: Why didn’t the Mongols create another civilization?

Answer: At that time, the main feature of civilization was religion. The Mongols did not create their own religion that met the needs of civilization, but adopted Islam. Civilization could be created by the development of a separate confession (like the separation of Catholic and Orthodox worlds), but the Mongols accepted the already widespread Sunnism.

Do you think the Mongol tribes have reached the level of civilization or not?

The Mongols created their own state, in which they were big cities and a complex control system. They have become civilized.

Genghis Khan became a great conqueror. He created a huge empire. It collapsed, but the power of the Mongols in its parts remained.

What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongols? In your opinion, as a person of the 21st century, what actions of Genghis Khan and his warriors can evoke respect, and what actions can evoke disgust? Explain why.

Reasons for the Mongols' success:

The main strength of the Mongols were well-trained horse archers;

Iron discipline reigned in the Mongol army;

The Mongols used various tactical tricks, for example, a false retreat of the center of the army and a strike on the flanks of the enemy who was carried away by the pursuit;

Mongol warriors were unpretentious, so they could do without convoys, thanks to moving very quickly;

The Mongols adopted the achievements of the conquered peoples, for example, the siege engines of the Chinese;

Many of the Mongols' opponents, such as the Chinese, were divided and sometimes even tried to use the Mongols against each other.

Draw a conclusion about the historical image of Genghis Khan.

Genghis Khan remained in history as the creator of a flawlessly working military machine, but at the same time a very cruel person.

Name the neighbors of the Mongol state by 1206. Which lands did Genghis Khan conquer, and which lands did his heirs conquer?

The Mongol Khanate was surrounded by the states of the Kirghiz, Kara-Chinese, Tanguts and the Jin Empire. Genghis Khan conquered them all, except for the Jin Empire - it was captured by his heirs.

Divide the lands conquered by the Mongols into groups on the basis of “civilized / primitive” and on the basis of “different civilizations”.

Only the Cuman tribes were considered primitive, the rest were considered civilized.

The Far Eastern civilization included the states of the Kyrgyz, Kara-Chinese, Tanguts, Tibet, and the Song and Jin empires.

Indian civilization included Nepal and the part of Burma captured by the Mongols.

The Islamic civilization included the state of Khorezmshah, Volga Bulgaria and the territory controlled by Baghdad.

Armenia, Georgia and Alania belonged to the Orthodox civilization.

Some lands of Catholic civilization experienced the Mongol invasion, but they did not fall under the rule of the Mongols.

Why did the united Mongol Empire collapse? Working in pairs, describe a dispute between a Mongol and a representative of one of the conquered peoples, in which one would argue that the Mongol conquests brought benefit to the peoples of the world, and the other would refute his words.

The Mongol Empire collapsed because the heirs of Genghis Khan all considered themselves worthy of power, while everyone relied on different territories, which before the conquest were separate states and even civilizations, and listened to different advisers.

A person from a conquered people would describe how cruel the Mongols were during the invasion, what beautiful temples and libraries were destroyed. He himself would have admitted that under the Mongols trade had improved, peace had been restored, that the Mongols were fighting bandits and allowing enemies into their flourishing cities. But in his opinion this did not justify the cruelty of the invasion. To this, a Mongol would only object that the Mongols turned out to be stronger than all other peoples, therefore, by the right of the stronger, they dominate, and there is nothing to argue about. Mongols for a long time they did not look like Arabs, they did not strive to seem enlightened, most of them even continued to live in nomads.