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Topic in psychology: interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships: types and features

Interpersonal relationships are relationships between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences and express the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types:

1) official and unofficial;

2) business and personal;

3) rational and emotional;

4) subordination and parity.

Official (formal) refer to relationships that arise on an official basis and are regulated by statutes, regulations, orders, and laws. These are relationships that have a legal basis. People enter into such relationships because of their position, and not out of personal likes or dislikes for each other. Informal (informal) relationships develop on the basis of personal relationships between people and are not limited to any official framework.

Business relationships arise from people working together. They can be service relationships based on the distribution of responsibilities between members of the organization or production team.

Personal relationships are relationships between people that develop in addition to their joint activities. You can respect or disrespect your colleague, feel sympathy or antipathy for him, be friends with him or be at enmity. Therefore, personal relationships are based on the feelings that people have towards each other. Therefore, personal relationships are subjective. There are relationships of acquaintance, partnership, friendship and intimate relationships. Acquaintance- these are relationships when we know people by name, we can enter into superficial contact with them, talk with them. Partnership- these are closer positive and equal relationships that develop with many people on the basis of common interests and views for the sake of spending leisure time in companies. Friendship- these are even closer selective relationships with people, based on trust, affection, and common interests. Intimate relationships are a type of personal relationship. Intimate relationships are relationships in which another person is entrusted with the most intimate things. These relationships are characterized by closeness, frankness, and affection for each other.

Rational relationships are relationships based on reason and calculation; they are built on the basis of the expected or real benefit from the established relationship. Emotional relationships, on the contrary, are based on emotional perceptions of each other, often without taking into account objective information about the person. Therefore, rational and emotional relationships most often do not coincide. Thus, one can dislike a person, but enter into rational relationships with him for the benefit of a common goal or personal gain.

Subordinate relationships are relationships of leadership and subordination, that is, unequal relationships in which some people have a higher status (position) and more rights than others. This is the relationship between a leader and subordinates. In contrast to this parity relationships mean equality between people. Such people are not subordinate to each other and act as independent individuals.

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1.6. Types of communication
There are direct and indirect communication. Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people. Indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, for example, during negotiations between warring parties
14.3. Affection and Friendship
Attachment is a feeling of closeness based on sympathy for someone, mutual attraction to each other. As a result, such people prefer communication with each other to contacts with other people.
17.5. Personal characteristics of the teacher that make it difficult to communicate with students
Such characteristics include hot temper, straightforwardness, harshness, haste, heightened pride, stubbornness, self-confidence, lack of a sense of humor, touchiness, simplicity, slowness, dryness, disorganization. Hot temper and self-confidence are more typical for older teachers
1.2. With whom do we communicate, or In what case should we talk about communication?
When considering the essence of communication, two erroneous, in my opinion, positions are observed: in some cases, some acts of interaction between people are not included in the category of communication, and in other cases they are considered communication
8.5. Guilt
Guilt is a complex psychological phenomenon closely related to such moral quality, as conscience, and in implicit consciousness is designated as “remorse.” Western psychologists distinguish the state of guilt and the state of guilt. IN
Commandments of pedagogical communication (according to V. A. Kan-Kalik, 1987)
Pedagogical process is based on the relationship between the teacher and the children; it is these relationships that are primary in pedagogical interaction. When organizing pedagogical communication, one cannot proceed only from pedagogical goals

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Interpersonal relationships– these are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people and their psychological characteristics (N. N. Obozov). Unlike business relationships, interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive and emotional.

The development of interpersonal relationships is determined by gender, age, nationality and many other factors. IN interpersonal communication women feel the need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. They more often complain of loneliness (I.S. Kon). For women, characteristics that manifest themselves in interpersonal relationships are more significant, and for men, business qualities are more significant. In different national communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, belonging to different social strata, etc.

The process of development of interpersonal relationships includes dynamics, a mechanism for regulating interpersonal relationships and the conditions for their development. Interpersonal relationships develop dynamically: they are born, consolidated, reach a certain maturity, after which they can gradually weaken.

Dynamics of development of interpersonal relationshipsgoes through several stages: acquaintance, friendship, companionship and friendly relations. Dating takes place depending on the sociocultural norms of society. Friendly relationships form readiness for further development of interpersonal relationships. At the stage of comradely relations, there is a convergence of views and support for each other (it’s not for nothing that they say “act like a comrade”, “comrade in arms”). Friendly relationships have a common subject content - community of interests, goals of activity etc.

I.S. Con highlights utilitarian (instrumental-business) and emotionally expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship. The mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships is empathy - the response of one person to the experiences of another.

N.N. Obozov identifies several levels of empathy: First level includes cognitive empathy, which manifests itself in the form of understanding the mental state of another person (without changing one’s state). Second level implies empathy in the form of not only understanding the state of the object, but also empathy with it, i.e. emotional empathy. Third level includes cognitive, emotional and, most importantly, behavioral components. This level involves interpersonal identification, which is mental (perceived and understood), sensual(empathetic) and effective.

There are complex, hierarchically organized relationships between these three levels of empathy. Various shapes empathy and its intensity can be inherent in both the subject and the object of communication. A high level of empathy determines emotionality, responsiveness, etc.

The conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships significantly influence their dynamics and forms of manifestation. In urban conditions, compared to rural areas, interpersonal contacts are more numerous, quickly established and also quickly interrupted.

The psychology of interpersonal interaction is determined by the social positions of those communicating, their system of meaning formation, and the ability for socio-psychological reflection. Interpersonal interaction due to psychological mechanisms of social perception and causal attribution.

Social perception – social conditioning of the perception of social objects– people, ethnic groups, etc.

Causal attribution– subjective explanation of the reasons and motives of other people’s behavior, subjective interpretation of their personal qualities.

Attitudes – These are stable attitudes of people in relation to each other.

The perceived social object is included in the semantic system of connections that a given person has. When individual qualities are similar in communicating people, positive attitudes; in case of unacceptable qualities, psychological incompatibility - negative attitudes.

The perceived social object strives to create a certain impression, forms its own specific image – image , reflecting the social expectations of certain social groups, ensuring the success of interaction.

When influencing a communication partner, people, as a rule, strive to create an impression favorable to achieving their goals and make stereotypical conclusions regarding the behavior and appearance of the communication partner.

A person’s appearance is interpreted as a complex of numerous information signals about his national and social affiliation, mental qualities, level of culture, etc. . Perceiving each other, people draw conclusions about the character and mental state of their partner, his communication and activity qualities.

Halo effect– a general evaluative impression of a person depending on his social status in conditions of a lack of information about him, the dominance of the first impression of a person during subsequent interaction with him. Positive halo effect – if the first impression of a person is favorable, then there is a tendency for a positive assessment of all his subsequent actions . Negative halo effect – the case if the first impression is negative and is associated with unpleasant manifestations in the behavior of the individual, then, as a rule, a negative tendency will prevail in the assessment of her subsequent behavior.

Assessments of other people's behavior are often not only hasty and biased, but also illogical. Certain reasons for behavior are exaggerated or minimized. The assessments and self-esteem of men and women are not identical. Men, usually characterize themselves and others in categories of qualities, women– in categories of states. Women tend to explain their characteristics by situational factors.

In the interaction of people they appear not only the evaluation system of individuals, but also their type of intelligence. Thus, the empirical type is rigidly attached to particulars and details; it is with great difficulty that he assimilates the systemic organization of phenomena, their diversity and dynamism. He tends to trivialize the motives of other people's behavior. The abstract type is prone to abstraction from particulars.

Different evaluation criteria are updated in conditions of cooperation and confrontation. The conflict is dominated by the focus on identifying the enemy’s weaknesses.

The different status positions of the subjects of communication also determine the nature of their mutual assessments. The boss values his subordinate for some qualities, and the boss’s subordinate values him for others, and external signs managers are assessed especially carefully. Particular attention is paid to signs indicating those qualities of a leader that are significant for a subordinate.

Corresponding patterns of use of external cues exist in all inter-role relationships. In every more or less typical situation, people expect certain behavioral manifestations from each other. Meeting these expectations causes satisfaction; failure to justify them causes feelings of annoyance, disappointment and hostility. Social perception is subject to stereotyping . Common cliches often distort a person’s perception and lead to inadequate interpretations.

Based on mutual assessments, people form appropriate social emotions—feelings. Arises phenomenon attractions – emotional intensity of interpersonal relationships. Each person has his own motivational system that determines his preferences in interpersonal relationships.

Most people behave in accordance with their behavioral attitudes. By planning in advance a certain outcome of communication, they provoke it with their behavior. A touchy person usually behaves as if he has already been offended, while an aggressive person will not miss a single reason not to “fight back.” The qualities that are valued in oneself come to the fore.

A person receives about 70% of information about communication partners from external, directly observable features of their behavior: by facial, pantomimic, tempo-rhythmic, vocal and intonation characteristics.

A special area of communicative behavior is communication between a person and himself– autocommunication. Each person tends to recognize his own characteristics as the norm, and the characteristics of other people as a deviation from the norm. External aspects of behavior often mask the true motives and goals of behavior. Only special diagnostic methods make it possible to identify the objective essence of subjective behavioral manifestations.

Certain impressions are formed on the basis of a person’s external expression of his emotions(posture, facial expressions, expression of movements), however, here too one should be wary of hasty judgments. You can understand another person only by analyzing his behavior in various conditions, when situational masks are dropped.

Often communication between close people is more difficult than communication with people you don’t know well. This is explained by the fact that the better we know a person, the more we know what is unacceptable to him. People who have a common understanding understand each other better value orientation. But only spiritual community is the basis of lasting unity.

Each person has his own scale of measuring other people. Getting to know another person in the process of communication, an individual determines a possible strategy for his behavior and strives for an adequate construction of his own behavioral strategy. This also takes into account how this strategy will be assessed by the communication partner - a phenomenon social reflection. People care that their image takes its rightful place in the inner world of those with whom they actively interact. In the process of communication, people strive to assert their merits.

2. Concept, conflictological field of content of the phenomenon “conflict”

Conflict (from Latin - conflictus) means a clash of sides, opinions, forces. The causes of collisions can be a variety of problems that cover all spheres of people’s lives.

Conflict, in fact, is one of the types of social interaction, the subjects and participants of which are individuals, large and small social groups and organizations. Conflict interaction necessarily involves confrontation between the parties , i.e. actions directed against each other. The conflict is based on subjective-objective contradictions, but these two phenomena (contradictions and conflict) should not be identified. Usually they transform into an open struggle between the parties, into a real confrontation. Such contradictions, as a rule, are always difficult to resolve.

A.Ya Antsupov and A.I. Shipilov, having analyzed the works of domestic conflict experts, found that they contain components: the intractability of contradictions, the opposition of opponents to each other, the desire to harm one’s opponent, the negative emotions that arise in this case.

A number of researchers believe that social conflict is an open confrontation, a clash of two or more subjects, participants in social interaction, the causes of which are incompatible needs, interests and values. Not all conflicts are accompanied by open confrontation, and not all components are taken into account in this formula.

Conflict- this is an intractable contradiction that arises between the warring parties in connection with the resolution of social, personal, economic and other problems, which occurs in the form of acute emotional experiences and reactions, characterized by causing maximum damage to opponents. Its essence is presented in the form of a diagram (see Fig. 7.2.):

Rice. 7.2. Structure of the main components of the conflict

Concepts "subject" And "participant" conflicts are not always identical. Subject - is an active party capable of creating a conflict situation and influencing the course of the conflict depending on its interests.

Participant in the conflict may consciously (or not fully conscious of the purpose of the confrontation) take part in the conflict, or may accidentally or against his will be involved in the conflict. During the conflict, the statuses of participants and subjects may change. It is also necessary to distinguish direct and indirect participants in the conflict . The latter represent certain forces pursuing their own interests in someone else’s conflict.

Indirect participants can: a) provoke conflict and contribute to its development; b) contribute to reducing the intensity of the conflict and its complete cessation; c) support one side or the other or both sides. They form part of the surrounding social environment in which conflicts occur.

Social environment can act either as a catalyst, deterrent or neutral factor in the development of the conflict.

Subjects and participants social conflict have different ranks, statuses and have a certain power. Rank translated from German - title, rank. In conflictology, it is defined according to the principle of superior - inferior and presupposes the position occupied by one of the subjects of the conflict in relation to the opposing side. In the book by Borodkin F. M., Koryak N. M. “Attention conflict!” given a method for determining ranks of conflict subjects:

1) Rank 1 opponent- a person acting on his own behalf and pursuing his own interests.

2) Second rank opponent- people who defend group interests.

3) Third rank opponent- a structure consisting of groups directly interacting with each other.

4) Highest rank- government agencies acting on behalf of the law.

In a real conflict, each side seeks to lower the enemy's rank and increase its own.

Social status - This general position an individual or social group in society associated with a certain set of rights and obligations. Status can have a significant impact on the position (position) of a particular subject and participant in a real conflict. Power in social conflict - this is the opportunity and ability of the parties to the conflict to realize their goals despite the opposition of the enemy (opponent). It includes the entire set of means and resources, both directly involved in the confrontation and potential. While the conflict is in its infancy, its potential subjects have only a rough idea of the real strength of the enemy and the possible reaction environment to the expected conflict.

Environment- one of the elements in the structure of social conflict. It consists of physical environment(geographical, climatic, environmental and other factors) and social environment(social conditions for the development of the conflict).

An essential element of conflict is an object , that is, the specific reason, motivation, driving force of the conflict. All objects E.V. Aleksandrova subdivides into three types : 1) objects that cannot be divided, it is impossible to own them together; 2) objects that can be divided in different proportions among participants; 3) objects that subjects can own together (imaginary conflict).

Identifying an object in a specific conflict is far from easy. Subjects and participants in the conflict, pursuing their real or imaginary goals, can hide, disguise, and replace the sought-after motives that prompted them to confrontation. For example, in political struggle, the object of the conflict is the real power in society, but each of the subjects of political confrontation tries to prove that the main motive of his conflict activity is the desire to achieve the maximum possible benefits for his voters.

Object manipulation can bring significant benefits to one of the parties and significantly complicate the situation of the other. For example, a person who committed murder may be acquitted by the court if the defense proves that its client was forced to use a weapon in self-defense.

Identifying the Main Object- an indispensable condition for the successful resolution of any conflict. Otherwise, it will either not be resolved in principle (a deadlock situation), or will not be resolved in full, and in the interaction of subjects there will remain smoldering coals for new clashes.

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It is difficult to imagine humanity without interpersonal relationships. Most people spend most of their time socializing conscious life: From the moment we wake up until we go to bed, we are in the company of our family, friends, co-workers, acquaintances and strangers. Individuals enter into one form or another of relationships “face to face”, through the telephone, the Internet, and various forms of paper documents. Eliminate all this from our life, and then it can hardly be called human in the full sense of the word. How do interpersonal relationships form and what is meant by this term? Let's try to find answers to these questions.

Definition of Interpersonal Relationships

By the term “interpersonal relationships,” psychologists mean a set of interactions that arise between individuals, are often accompanied by emotional experiences, and in some way convey the state of a person’s inner world.

Interpersonal relationships are based on various types communication, which includes non-verbal communications, certain appearance, body movements and gestures, oral speech etc. They combine cognitive, emotional and behavioral components.

The cognitive component means such features of interpersonal relationships as various forms of cognition - representation, imagination, perception, sensation, memory, thinking. All of them allow us to recognize a person’s individual psychological characteristics and achieve understanding, which, in turn, depends on adequacy (how accurately we perceive the psychological portrait of the person with whom we interact) and identification (identification of our personality with the personality of another individual ).

The emotional component refers to the experiences that we experience when communicating with certain people. And they can wear both positive and negative character, that is, in the process of interpersonal relationships one can experience sympathy or antipathy, satisfaction with one’s partner or the results of joint activities, or the lack thereof. We can feel empathy, or an emotional response, to the experiences of another person, which is expressed in empathy, complicity and sympathy.

Finally, the behavioral component characterizes facial expressions, gestures, pantomimes, speech and actions that express the individual's attitude towards other people or the group as a whole. Actually, the behavioral component acts as a regulator of the nature of interpersonal relationships.

Formation of interpersonal relationships

The development of interpersonal relationships is possible only under one condition - if the individual has the ability to establish contacts with people, find relationships with them mutual language. This is facilitated by ease and contact, trust and understanding, emotional attraction and acceptance, as well as the absence of a rigid program of manipulation and self-interest.

Interpersonal relationships ideally strive for trust, this includes the expectation of support and confidence that the partner will not betray or use the situation for harm.

In the process of trusting interpersonal communication, relationships deepen and psychological distance decreases. However, trust often develops into gullibility, which is expressed in the fact that an individual unreasonably believes a person’s word, despite pitfalls and disappointments.

Types of interpersonal relationships

There are many different criteria for assessing interpersonal relationships. Their content is determined by the degree of psychological closeness between partners, the assessment of the relationship, the position of dominance, dependence or equality, as well as the degree of familiarity.

From the point of view of purpose, the forms of interaction between individuals can be primary and secondary. The peculiarities of interpersonal relationships of the primary type are that the necessary connections are established between people, as a rule, on their own. Secondary connections arise based on the assistance or function one person performs in relation to another.

By nature, interpersonal relationships are divided into formal and informal. Formal are based on an official basis and are regulated by charters, laws and other prescribed rules of interaction, which usually have a legal basis. Informal ones develop on the basis of personal connections and are not limited by official boundaries.

From the point of view of joint activities, interpersonal relationships are divided into business and personal. In business relationships, work, official or production responsibilities are at the forefront. In the case of personal relationships, relationships not related to joint activities, based on subjectively experienced feelings, come to the fore. These include acquaintance, partnership, friendship and intimate relationships, the degree of trust of which is increasing.

Also, interpersonal relationships can be rational and emotional. In the first case, logic, reason and calculation prevail. In the second - emotions, affection, attractiveness, perception without taking into account objective information about the individual.

From the point of view of the status of people entering into interpersonal relationships, connections between them can be of a subordinate or parity nature. Subordination presupposes inequality, the relationship of leadership and subordination. Parity, on the contrary, is based on the equality of individuals, while the participants in the relationship act as independent individuals.

Interpersonal relationships can bring joy to communication, make life emotionally fulfilling and give peace of mind. On the other hand, they can be frustrating and depressing. How effectively the development of interpersonal relationships will occur in a particular individual depends on his skills effective communication, the ability to perceive people without prejudice, as well as psychological and emotional maturity. And if it seems that you are far from acquiring these skills, do not despair, because by showing perseverance and setting a goal, you will be able to develop all the necessary qualities in yourself.

For the first time in Russian literature, interpersonal (interpersonal) relationships were analyzed in 1975 in the book “Social Psychology”.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychological science has been studied to a certain extent. The monograph by N. N. Obozov (1979) summarizes the results of empirical research by domestic and foreign specialists. This is the most in-depth and detailed study and currently remains relevant. In subsequent publications, little attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal relationships. Abroad, this problem is analyzed in reference books on social psychology. The most interesting joint study by T. Huston and G. Levinger is “Interpersonal Attraction and Interpersonal Relationships” (Huston, Levinger, 1978), which has not lost its significance to this day.

Nowadays, many works appear in print that examine the problems of interpersonal and business contacts (business communication), and give practical recommendations on their optimization (Deryabo, Yasvin, 1996; Evening, 1996; Kuzin, 1996). Some of these publications are popular presentations of the results psychological research, sometimes without references and a list of references.

The concept of “interpersonal relationships”. Interpersonal relationships are closely related to various types public relations. G. M. Andreeva emphasizes that the existence of interpersonal relationships within various forms of social relations is the implementation of impersonal (social) relations in the activities of specific people, in the acts of their communication and interaction (Andreeva, 1999).

Social relations are official, formally established, objectified, effective connections. They are leaders in regulating all types of relationships, including interpersonal ones.

Interpersonal relationships- these are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people. Unlike business (instrumental) relationships, which can be either officially established or unsecured, interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive, emphasizing their emotional content. Relationships between business and interpersonal relationships in scientifically insufficiently developed.

Interpersonal relationships include three elements - cognitive (gnostic, informational), affective and behavioral (practical, regulatory).

Cognitive element involves awareness of what is liked or disliked in interpersonal relationships.

Affective aspect finds its expression in various emotional experiences of people about the relationships between them. The emotional component is usually the leading one. “These are, first of all, positive and negative emotional states, conflict states (intrapersonal, interpersonal), emotional sensitivity, satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.” (Obozov, 1979, p. 5).

The emotional content of interpersonal relationships (sometimes called valence) changes in two opposite directions: from conjunctive (positive, bringing together) to indifferent (neutral) and disjunctive (negative, separating) and vice versa. The options for manifestations of interpersonal relationships are enormous. Conjunctive feelings manifest themselves in various forms of positive emotions and states, the demonstration of which indicates a readiness for rapprochement and joint activity. Indifferent feelings involve manifestations of a neutral attitude towards a partner. This may include indifference, indifference, indifference, etc. Disjunctive feelings are expressed in various forms negative emotions and a state that is regarded by the partner as a lack of readiness for further rapprochement and communication. In some cases, the emotional content of interpersonal relationships may be ambivalent (contradictory).

Conventional manifestations of emotions and feelings in forms and methods characteristic of those groups whose representatives enter into interpersonal contacts can, on the one hand, contribute to mutual understanding of the communicators, and, on the other hand, complicate interaction (for example, if the communicators belong to different ethnic, professional, social and other groups and use various non-verbal means of communication).

Behavioral the component of interpersonal relationships is realized in specific actions. If one of the partners likes the other, the behavior will be friendly, aimed at providing assistance and productive cooperation. If the object is not attractive, then the interactive side of communication will be difficult. Between these behavioral poles there are a large number of forms of interaction, the implementation of which is determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong.

Interpersonal relationships are built vertically (between a manager and a subordinate and vice versa) and horizontally (between persons occupying the same status). The emotional manifestations of interpersonal connections are determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong, and by individual differences that vary within the limits of these norms. Interpersonal relationships can be formed from the positions of dominance-equality-subordination and dependence-independence.

Social distance presupposes a combination of official and interpersonal relations that determines the closeness of the communicating people, corresponding to the sociocultural norms of the communities to which they belong. Social distance allows you to maintain an adequate level of breadth and depth of relationships when establishing interpersonal relationships. Its violation leads initially to disjunctive interpersonal relationships (in power relations up to 52%, and in equal-status relationships up to 33%), and then to conflicts (Obozov, 1979).

Psychological distance characterizes the degree of closeness of interpersonal relationships between communication partners (friendly, comradely, friendly, trusting). In our opinion, this concept emphasizes a certain stage in the dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal compatibility- this is the optimal combination of psychological characteristics of partners that contribute to the optimization of their communication and activities. “Harmonization”, “coherence”, “consolidation”, etc. are used as equivalent words. Interpersonal compatibility is based on the principles of similarity and complementarity. Its indicators are satisfaction with joint interaction and its result. The secondary result is the emergence of mutual sympathy. The opposite phenomenon of compatibility is incompatibility, and the feelings it evokes are antipathy. Interpersonal compatibility is considered as a state, process and result (Obozov, 1979). It develops within a spatiotemporal framework and specific conditions (normal, extreme, etc.), which influence its manifestation. To determine interpersonal compatibility, hardware and technical techniques and homeostat are used.

Interpersonal Attraction- this is a complex psychological property of a person, which, as it were, “attracts” a communication partner and involuntarily evokes a feeling of sympathy in him. The charm of her personality allows her to win people over. A person's attractiveness depends on his physical and social appearance, ability to empathize, etc.

Interpersonal attractiveness promotes the development of interpersonal connections and evokes a cognitive, emotional and behavioral response in a partner. The phenomenon of interpersonal attractiveness in friendly couples is thoroughly disclosed in the research of N. N. Obozov.

In scientific and popular literature such a concept as "emotional appeal"- the ability of an individual to understand the mental states of a communication partner and especially to: empathize with him. The latter (the ability to empathize) is manifested in the responsiveness of feelings to various states of the partner. This concept is somewhat narrower than “interpersonal attractiveness.”

In our opinion, interpersonal attractiveness has not been sufficiently studied scientifically. At the same time, from an applied point of view, this concept is studied as a phenomenon of the formation of a certain image. IN national science This approach has been actively developing since 1991, when there was a real need for psychological recommendations on forming the image of a politician or business person. Publications on this issue provide advice on creating an attractive image of a politician (according to appearance, voice production, use of verbal and non-verbal means of communication, etc.). Specialists on this problem have appeared - image makers. For psychologists, this problem seems promising.

Taking into account the practical significance of the problem of interpersonal attractiveness in educational institutions where psychologists are trained, it is advisable to introduce a special course “Formation of the image of a psychologist.” This will allow graduates to more successfully prepare for future work, look more attractive in the eyes of clients and establish the necessary contacts.

The concept of “attraction” is closely related to interpersonal attractiveness. Some researchers consider attraction as a process and at the same time a result of the attractiveness of one person to another; distinguish levels in it (sympathy, friendship, love) and connect it with the perceptual side of communication (Andreeva, 1999). Others believe that attraction is a kind of social attitude in which a positive emotional component predominates (Gozman, 1987). V. N. Kunitsyna understands attraction as the process of preference of some people over others, mutual attraction between people, mutual sympathy. In her opinion, attraction is determined by external factors (the degree of expression of a person’s need for affiliation, the emotional state of communication partners, the spatial proximity of the place of residence or work of those communicating) and internal, actually interpersonal determinants (physical attractiveness, demonstrated style of behavior, the factor of similarity between partners, expression of personal attitude towards a partner in the process of communication) (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001). As can be seen from the above, the polysemy of the concept of “attraction” and its overlap with other phenomena complicates the use of this term and explains the lack of research in Russian psychology. This concept is borrowed from Anglo-American psychology and is covered by the domestic term “interpersonal attractiveness.” In this regard, it seems appropriate to use these terms as equivalent.

Under the concept "attraction" the need of one person to be together with another who has certain characteristics that receive a positive assessment from the perceiver is understood. It denotes experienced sympathy for another person. Attraction can be one- or two-directional (Obozov. 1979). Opposite concept "repulsion" (negation) is associated with the psychological characteristics of the communication partner, which are perceived and assessed negatively; therefore, the partner causes negative emotions.

Personality characteristics influencing the formation of interpersonal relationships. A favorable prerequisite for the successful formation of interpersonal relationships is the mutual awareness of partners about each other, formed on the basis of interpersonal knowledge. The development of interpersonal relationships is largely determined by the characteristics of those communicating. These include gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, profession, experience in communicating with people and some personal characteristics.

Floor. The uniqueness of interpersonal relationships between the sexes manifests itself already in childhood. Boys, compared to girls, even in childhood are more active in making contacts, participating in group games, and interacting with peers. This picture is also observed in adult men. Girls tend to communicate in a narrower circle. They establish relationships with those they like. The content of joint activities is not very important for them (for boys it’s the opposite). Women have a much smaller social circle than men. In interpersonal communication, they experience a much greater need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. More often they complain of loneliness (Kohn, 1987).

For women, characteristics manifested in interpersonal relationships are more significant, and for men - business qualities,

In interpersonal relationships, female steel is aimed at reducing social distance and establishing psychological closeness with people. In friendships, women emphasize trust, emotional support and intimacy. “Women’s friendships are less stable. The intimacy inherent in female friendship on a very wide range of issues, the discussion of the nuances of one’s own relationships complicates them” (Kohn, 1987, p. 267). Discrepancies, misunderstandings and emotionality undermine women's interpersonal relationships.

In men, interpersonal relationships are characterized by greater emotional restraint and objectivity. They open up more easily to strangers. Their style of interpersonal relationships is aimed at maintaining their image in the eyes of their communication partner, showing their achievements and aspirations. In friendships, men detect a sense of camaraderie and mutual support.

Age. The need for emotional warmth appears in infancy and with age gradually turns into varying degrees of awareness of the psychological attachment of children to people who create for them psychological comfort(Cohn, 1987, 1989). With age, people gradually lose the openness characteristic of youth in interpersonal relationships. Their behavior is influenced by numerous sociocultural norms (especially professional and ethnic ones). The circle of contacts especially narrows after young people get married and have children in the family. Numerous interpersonal relationships are reduced and manifested in production and related areas. In middle age, as children grow older, interpersonal relationships expand again. In older and older age, interpersonal relationships acquire weight. The ego is explained by the fact that children have grown up and have their own attachments, active work ends, and the circle of friends sharply narrows. In old age, old friendships play a special role.

Nationality. Ethnic norms determine sociability, boundaries of behavior, and rules for the formation of interpersonal relationships. In different ethnic communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, membership in social strata and religious groups, etc.

Some properties temperament influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. It has been experimentally established that choleric and sanguine people easily establish contacts, while phlegmatic and melancholic people have difficulty. Consolidating interpersonal relationships in pairs of “choleric with choleric”, “sanguine with sanguine” and “choleric with sanguine” is difficult. Stable interpersonal connections are formed in pairs of “melancholic with phlegmatic”, “melancholic with sanguine” and “phlegmatic with sanguine” (Obozov, 1979).

Health status. External physical disabilities, as a rule, have a negative impact on the “self-concept” and ultimately make it difficult to form interpersonal relationships.

Temporary illnesses affect sociability and the stability of interpersonal contacts. Diseases of the thyroid gland, various neuroses, etc., associated with increased excitability, irritability, anxiety, mental instability, etc. - all this seems to “rock” interpersonal relationships and negatively affects them.

Profession. Interpersonal relationships are formed in all spheres of human life, but those are the most stable. which appear as a result of joint labor activity. In the course of performing functional duties, not only business contacts are consolidated, but also interpersonal relationships emerge and develop, which later acquire a multifaceted and deep character. If by gender professional activity If a person has to constantly communicate with people, then he develops the skills and abilities to establish interpersonal contacts (for example, lawyers, journalists, etc.).

Experience communicating with people promotes the acquisition of stable skills in interpersonal relationships, based on social norms of regulation, with representatives of different groups in society (Bobneva, 1978). Communication experience allows you to practically master and apply various norms of communication with by different people and form social control over the manifestation of their emotions.

Self-esteem. Adequate self-esteem allows an individual to objectively assess their characteristics and correlate them with the individual psychological qualities of a communication partner, with the situation, choose the appropriate style of interpersonal relationships and adjust it if necessary.

Inflated self-esteem introduces elements of arrogance and condescension into interpersonal relationships. If the communication partner is satisfied with this style of interpersonal relationships, they will be quite stable, otherwise they will become tense.

Low self-esteem of an individual forces her to adapt to the style of interpersonal relationships offered by her communication partner. At the same time, this can introduce a certain mental tension into interpersonal relationships due to the internal discomfort of the individual.

The need for communication and establishing interpersonal contacts with people is a fundamental characteristic of a person. At the same time, among people there are people whose need for confidential communication (affiliation) and mercy (altruism) is somewhat overestimated. Friendly interpersonal relationships are most often formed with one person or several individuals, while affiliation and altruism tend to be expressed among many people. Research results indicate that helping behavior has been identified in people with empathy, a high level of self-control and a tendency to accept independent decisions. Indicators of affiliative behavior are positive verbal statements, prolonged eye contact, a friendly facial expression, increased manifestation of verbal and non-verbal signs of agreement, confidential telephone calls, etc. The described characteristics of affiliative behavior in form resemble the stage of friendly relations, and its indicators are criteria for the development of positive interpersonal relationships. During the research, we identified personal qualities that make it difficult development of interpersonal relationships. The first group included narcissism, arrogance, arrogance, complacency and vanity. The second group includes dogmatism, a constant tendency to disagree with a partner. The third group included duplicity and insincerity (Kunitsyna, Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001)

The process of forming interpersonal relationships. It includes the dynamics, the regulatory mechanism (empathy) and the conditions for their development.

Dynamics of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships are born, strengthened, reach a certain maturity, after which they can weaken and then cease. They develop in a continuum and have a certain dynamics.

In his works, N. N. Obozov explores the main types of interpersonal relationships, but does not consider their dynamics. American researchers also identify several categories of groups, the basis of which is the closeness of interpersonal relationships (acquaintances, good friends, close friends and best friends), but analyze them somewhat in isolation, without revealing the course of their development (Huston, Levinger, 1978).

The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships in the time continuum goes through several stages (stages): acquaintance, friendship, companionship and friendly relations. The process of weakening interpersonal relationships in the “reverse” direction has the same dynamics (the transition from friendly to comradely, friendly, and then the termination of the relationship). The duration of each stage depends on many components of interpersonal relationships.

Dating process carried out depending on the sociocultural and professional norms of the society to which future communication partners belong.

Friendship form readiness or unpreparedness for further development of interpersonal relationships. If the partners have a positive attitude, then this is a favorable prerequisite for further communication.

Companionship allow you to strengthen interpersonal contact. Here there is a convergence of views and support for each other (at this stage such concepts as “act in a comradely manner”, “comrade in arms”, etc.) are used. Interpersonal relationships at this stage are characterized by stability and a certain mutual trust. Numerous popular publications on optimizing interpersonal relationships give recommendations on the use of various techniques to induce goodwill and sympathy among communication partners (Snell, 1990; Deryabo, Yasvin, 1996; Kuzin, 1996),

When researching friendly (trusting) relationships the most interesting and profound results were obtained by I. S. Kon, N. N. Obozov, T. P. Skripkina (Obozov, 1979; Kon, 1987, 1989; Skripkina, 1997). According to I. S. Kon, friendly relations always have a common substantive content - a community of interests, goals of activity, in the name of which friends unite (unite), and at the same time presuppose mutual affection (Kon, 1987).

Despite the similarity of views and the provision of emotional and activity support to each other, certain disagreements may exist between friends. We can distinguish utilitarian (instrumental-business, practically effective) and emotional-expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship. Friendly relationships manifest themselves in various forms: from interpersonal sympathy to a mutual need for communication. Such relationships can develop both in a formal and informal setting. Friendly relationships, compared to companionship, are characterized by greater depth and trust (Kohn, 1987). Friends openly discuss with each other many aspects of their lives, including the personal characteristics of those communicating and mutual acquaintances.

An important characteristic of friendships is trust. T. P. Skripkina in her research reveals the empirical correlates of people’s trust in other people and in themselves (Skripkina, 1997).

Interesting results on the problem of trusting relationships were obtained in a study conducted under the leadership of V.N. Kunitsyna on a student sample. “Trusting relationships in the surveyed group prevail over dependency relationships. A third of respondents define their relationship with their mother as a trusting, partnership; More than half of them believe that, despite all this, dependent relationships often arise with their mother, while relationships with a friend are assessed only as trusting and partnership. It turned out that the dependency relationship with one significant person often compensated through building a partnership with a significant other. If, during the accumulation of experience, a person has formed insufficient hope for establishing close relationships with people, then relationships of trust and support more often arise with a friend than with a mother” (Kunitsyna. Kazarinova, Pogolsha, 2001). Friendships can weaken and end if one of the friends fails to keep secrets entrusted to him, does not protect the friend in his absence, and is also jealous of his other relationships (Argyle, 1990).

Friendships in young years are accompanied by intense contacts, psychological richness and greater significance. At the same time, a sense of humor and sociability are highly valued.

Adults value responsiveness, honesty, and social availability more in friendships. Friendships at this age are more stable. “In active middle age, the emphasis on psychological intimacy as the most important sign friendship weakens somewhat and friendly relations lose their aura of totality” (Kohn, 1987, p. 251),

Friendships among the older generation are mostly related to family ties and people who have the same life experiences and values.

The problem of criteria for friendly relations has not been sufficiently studied. Some researchers include mutual assistance, fidelity and psychological intimacy among them, others point to competence in communicating with partners, caring for them, actions and predictability of behavior.

Empathy as a mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships. Empathy is the response of one person to the experiences of another. Some researchers believe that it is an emotional process, others - an emotional and cognitive process. There are conflicting opinions about whether a given phenomenon is a process or a property.

N. N. Obozov considers empathy as a process (mechanism) and includes cognitive, emotional and effective components. According to him, empathy has three levels.

The hierarchical structural-dynamic model is based on cognitive empathy (first level), manifested in the form of understanding the mental state of another person without changing one’s own state.

Second level of empathy implies emotional empathy, not only in the form of understanding the state of another person, but also empathy and sympathy for him, an empathic response. This form of empathy includes two options. The first is associated with the simplest empathy, which is based on the need for one’s own well-being. Another, transitional form from emotional to effective empathy, is expressed in the form of sympathy, which is based on the need for the well-being of another person.

Third level of empathy- the highest form, including cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. It fully expresses interpersonal identification, which is not only mental (perceived and understood) and sensory (empathetic), but also effective. At this level of empathy, real actions and behavioral acts are manifested to provide assistance and support to a communication partner (sometimes such the style of behavior is called helping). There are complex interdependencies between the three forms of empathy (Obozov, 1979). In the presented approach, the second and third levels of empathy (emotional and effective) are quite convincingly and logically substantiated. At the same time, its first level (cognitive empathy), associated with understanding the state of other people without changing one’s state), is, in our opinion, a purely cognitive process.

As the results show experimental research in Russia and abroad, sympathy is one of the main forms of manifestation of empathy. It is determined by the principle of similarity of certain biosocial characteristics of communicating people. The principle of similarity is presented in numerous works by I. S. Kon and N. N. Obozov. T, P. Gavrilova, F, Heider, T. Newcomb, L. Festinger, C. Osgood, and P. Tannenbaum.

If the principle of similarity is not manifested in the communicating people, then this indicates indifference of feelings. When they exhibit inconsistency and especially contradiction, this entails disharmony (imbalance) in cognitive structures and leads to the emergence of antipathy.

As research results show, most often interpersonal relationships are based on the principle of similarity (resemblance), and sometimes on the principle of complementarity. The latter is expressed in the fact that, for example, when choosing comrades, friends, future spouses, etc., people unconsciously, and sometimes consciously, choose persons who can satisfy mutual needs. Based on this, positive interpersonal relationships can develop.

Showing sympathy can intensify the transition from one stage of interpersonal relationships to another, as well as expand and deepen interpersonal relationships. Sympathy, like antipathy, can be unidirectional (without reciprocity) or multidirectional (with reciprocity).

The concept is very close to the concept of “empathy”. "sintotost", which is understood as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, due to the need for emotional contact. In Russian literature, this concept is found quite rarely.

Various forms of empathy are based on a person’s sensitivity to his own and others’ world. During the development of empathy as a personality trait, emotional responsiveness and the ability to predict the emotional state of people are formed. Empathy can be conscious to varying degrees. It can be possessed by one or both communication partners. The level of empathy was experimentally determined in studies by T. P. Gavrilova and N. N. Obozov. Individuals with high levels of empathy show interest in other people, are flexible, emotional and optimistic. For persons with low level empathy, characterized by difficulties in establishing contacts, introversion, rigidity and self-centeredness.

Empathy can manifest itself not only in real communication between people, but also in the perception of works of fine art, in the theater, etc.

Empathy as a mechanism for the formation of interpersonal relationships contributes to their development and stabilization, allows you to support your partner not only in ordinary, but also in difficult, extreme conditions, when he especially needs it. Based on the mechanism of empathy, emotional and business impact becomes possible.

Conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships are formed under certain conditions that influence their dynamics, breadth and depth (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

In urban conditions, compared to rural areas, there is enough high tempo life, frequent changes of places of work and residence, high level of public control. The result is a large number of interpersonal contacts, their short duration and the manifestation of functional-role communication. This leads to the fact that interpersonal relationships in the city place higher psychological demands on the partner. To support close relations, those communicating often have to pay with the loss of personal time, mental overload, material resources, etc.

Studies abroad show that the more often people meet, the more attractive they seem to each other. Apparently, and vice versa, the less often acquaintances meet, the faster interpersonal relationships between them weaken and cease. Spatial proximity particularly affects interpersonal relationships in children. If parents move or children move from one school to another, their contacts usually cease.

The specific conditions in which people communicate are important in the formation of interpersonal relationships. First of all, this is due to the types of joint activities during which interpersonal contacts are established (study, work, leisure), with the situation (usual or extreme), the ethnic environment (mono- or polyethnic), material resources, etc.

It is well known that interpersonal relationships develop quickly (go through all stages up to the level of trust) in certain places (for example, in a hospital, on a train, etc.). This phenomenon is apparently due to strong dependence on external factors, short-term joint life activities and spatial proximity. Unfortunately, we do not carry out very many comparative studies on interpersonal relationships in these conditions.

The importance of the time factor in interpersonal relationships depends on the specific sociocultural environment in which they develop (Ross and Nisbett, 1999).

The time factor influences the ethnic environment differently. IN eastern cultures the development of interpersonal relationships is, as it were, stretched out over time, while in Western ones it is “compressed”, dynamic. There are almost no works presenting studies of the influence of the time factor on interpersonal relationships in our literature.

Numerous techniques and tests are available to measure various aspects of interpersonal relationships. Among them are the diagnosis of interpersonal relationships by T. Leary (dominance-submission, friendliness-aggression), the “Q-sorting” technique (dependence-independence, sociability-unsociability, acceptance of struggle-avoidance of struggle), K. Thomas’ behavior description test (competition, cooperation , compromise, avoidance, adaptation), J. Moreno’s method of interpersonal preferences for measuring sociometric status in a group (preference-rejection), A. Mehrabyan and N. Epstein’s questionnaire of empathic tendencies. method of the level of empathic abilities of V. V. Boyko, method of I. M. Yusupov for measuring the level of empathic tendencies, author’s methods of V. N. Kunitsyna, questionnaire method of V. Azarov for studying impulsivity and volitional regulation in communication, method of assessing the level of sociability of V. F. Ryakhovsky and others.

The problem of interpersonal relationships in domestic and foreign psychological science has been studied to a certain extent. Scientific research There is currently very little research on interpersonal relationships. Prospective problems are: compatibility in business and interpersonal relationships, social distance in them, trust in different types of interpersonal relationships and its criteria, as well as the peculiarities of interpersonal connections in various types of professional activities in a market economy.

Lecture outline:

1. The concept of “interpersonal relationships”.

2. Attraction.

3. Compatibility.

Basic concepts: social relations, interpersonal relationships, social distance, interpersonal distance, attraction, compatibility.

1. In social psychology, there are two main types of relationships: social and interpersonal.

Public relations- these are official, formally secured, objectified, effective connections. They are leaders in regulating all types of relationships, including interpersonal ones. Social relations are impersonal; their essence is not in the interaction of specific individuals, but rather in the interaction of specific social roles.

Interpersonal relationships- these are objectively experienced, to varying degrees perceived, relationships between people. They are based on the various emotional states of interacting people. Unlike business (instrumental) relationships, which can be either officially established or unsecured, interpersonal connections are sometimes called expressive, emphasizing their emotional content. Interpersonal relations are the actual reality of social relations: outside of them there are no “pure” social relations anywhere. Therefore, in almost all group actions, their participants appear in two capacities: as performers of an impersonal social role and as unique human individuals.

Interpersonal relationships include three elements - cognitive (gnostic, informational), affective and behavioral (practical, regulatory).

Cognitive element involves awareness of what one likes or dislikes in interpersonal relationships.

Affective aspect finds its expression in various emotional experiences of people about the relationships between them. The emotional component is usually the leading one. “These are, first of all, positive and negative emotional states, conflict states (intrapersonal, interpersonal), emotional sensitivity, satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.” (Obozov, 1979, p. 5).

Behavioral component interpersonal relationships are realized in specific actions. If one of the partners likes the other, the behavior will be friendly, aimed at providing assistance and productive cooperation. If the object is not attractive, then the interactive side of communication will be difficult. Between these behavioral poles there are a large number of forms of interaction, the implementation of which is determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicating people belong.

2. People not only perceive each other, but they also form certain relationships towards each other, which give rise to a diverse range of feelings - from rejection of a particular person to sympathy, even love for him. The area of research associated with elucidating the mechanisms of formation of various emotional attitudes towards a perceived person is called research attractions.

Attraction- this is the process of forming the attractiveness of a person for the perceiver, and the product of this process, i.e. some quality of attitude (G.M. Andreeva). Interpersonal attractiveness is a complex psychological property of a person, which, as it were, “attracts” a communication partner and involuntarily evokes a feeling of sympathy in him. The charm of her personality allows her to win people over. A person's attractiveness depends on his physical and social appearance, ability to empathize, etc.

Attraction can be considered as a special type of social attitude towards another person, in which the emotional component predominates, when this “other” is assessed primarily in categories characteristic of affective assessments (L.Ya. Gozman).

Attraction influences the nature of the processes of intra-group interaction (the number of altruistic actions increases, mutual assistance develops); contributes to the creation of a psychologically comfortable, creative atmosphere in the group, increasing the level of conformity and imitation; makes it easier for newcomers to join a group, facilitating faster acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills and the transfer of experience from one group member to another. The emergence of attraction between partners has a positive impact on communication: communication is easier, the willingness to support each other is more evident in interaction, and attribution predominates when constructing the image of a partner positive qualities; in the group – establishing psychological comfort.

Various levels of attraction are identified: sympathy, friendship, love. Sympathy– emotional positive attitude towards the subject of interaction. Friendship- a type of stable, individually selective interpersonal relationships, characterized by mutual affection of their participants. Love is the highest degree of an emotionally positive attitude towards a person based on an extremely high assessment of his merits, attraction to him, and the desire to become the most personally significant for him.

3 . Concept compatibility It has been used quite widely and for a long time by psychologists, doctors, biologists, philosophers, etc. This concept has found its application in many areas modern science. However, it began to be studied as an interpersonal phenomenon only from the early 50s of the 20th century.

In relation to socio-psychological phenomena, compatibility is considered as “the unity of views and attitudes, needs and value systems of two or more team members, the synchronicity of their psychomotor reactions, the same level of arousal and inhibition, similarity in attention and thinking, level of motivation and intelligence, as well as a number of other mental qualities.”

Most foreign definitions of compatibility have one characteristic: common feature- focusing on the problem of satisfying need or behavioral traits. Thus, W.C. Schutz defines compatibility as a characteristic of relationships between two or more persons, between an individual and a role, or between an individual and work situation, and resulting in mutual satisfaction of individual or interpersonal needs and harmonious coexistence.

The main signs of compatibility, according to many researchers, are:

§ an indicator of successful joint implementation of a professional task,

§ satisfaction from communication as a result of consistency,

§ satisfaction from communication as a result of partners having characterological personality traits that are favorable for joint activities.

The process of compatibility, according to K.K. Platonov, becomes more and more complex as mental and social processes are included. And therefore, all existing and distinguished types of compatibility can be considered as a hierarchical system of levels, the highest of which is socio-psychological, and the lowest is physiological. Of all the identified levels of compatibility, only the highest - socio-psychological - can be regulated consciously. Only the inclusion of consciousness and the emotional-volitional sphere in the regulation of interaction ensures, to a greater or lesser extent, the compatibility of people. The specific type of relationship will determine what levels of compatibility will be included in regulating the joint activities of partners. It should be noted that as the interconnectedness of participants in joint activities increases, all larger number compatibility levels. Hierarchy of compatibility levels, according to K.K. Platonov is quite complex. She assumes that more general and higher levels can influence the lower ones.

K.K. Platonov distinguishes four types of compatibility: physiological, psychophysiological, psychological and socio-psychological.

N.N. Obozov, considering the problem of compatibility, does not distinguish its levels or types. However, in relation to socio-psychological research, he proposes to distinguish between the concepts of “compatibility” and “workability”. Compatibility and workability do not have clear differences. According to N.N. Obozov, these are two sides of one of the phenomena of human interaction.

Triggerability- this is the consistency of the characteristics of the subjects, which ensures that they effectively carry out any joint activity. The concept of compatibility is therefore applicable only to business, professional relationships - relationships within the framework of joint activities. The phenomenon of compatibility, in contrast to workability, is an interpersonal phenomenon that exists within the framework of personal relationships based on sympathy, attraction and which serves “communication for the sake of communication.” According to N.N. Obozov, compatibility is both a condition for the emergence of interpersonal sympathies and the result of already established positive relationships.

Related information.