I. Introduction

1. Documentation is the ability to record ongoing phenomena and processes and retain the information received for a long time.
2. Immediacy is the ability to register short-term events.
3. Panoramic - the ability to capture several objects at the same time.
4. Integrity is the ability to accumulate light from weak sources.
5. Detail - the ability to see the details of an object in an image.

• Through a telescope we see as much as possible: ( resolution) α= 14 "/D or α= 206265·λ/D[Where λ is the wavelength of light, and D- diameter of the telescope lens] .
• The amount of light collected by the lens is called aperture ratio. Aperture E=~S (or D 2) of the lens. E=(D/d xp ) 2 , Where d xp - the diameter of the human pupil under normal conditions is 5mm (maximum in the dark 8mm).
• Increase telescope = Focal length of the lens/Focal length of the eyepiece. W=F/f=β/α.

Celestial bodies produce radiation: light, infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves, x-rays, gamma radiation. Since the atmosphere interferes with the penetration of rays to the ground with λ< λ света (ультрафиолетовые, рентгеновские, γ - излучения), то последнее время на орбиту Земли выводятся телескопы и целые орбитальные обсерватории : (т.е развиваются внеатмосферные наблюдения).

l. Fixing the material .
Questions:

1. What astronomical information did you study in courses in other subjects? (natural history, physics, history, etc.)
2. What is the specificity of astronomy compared to other natural sciences?
3. What types of celestial bodies do you know?
4. Planets. How many, as they say, order of arrangement, largest, etc.
5. What is the value in national economy has astronomy today?

Values ​​in the national economy:
- Orientation by stars to determine the sides of the horizon
- Navigation (navigation, aviation, astronautics) - the art of finding a way by the stars
- Exploration of the Universe to understand the past and predict the future
- Cosmonautics:
- Exploration of the Earth in order to preserve its unique nature
- Obtaining materials that are impossible to obtain in terrestrial conditions
- Weather forecast and disaster prediction
- Rescue of ships in distress
- Research of other planets to predict the development of the Earth
Result:

1. What new did you learn? What is astronomy, the purpose of a telescope and its types. Features of astronomy, etc.
2. It is necessary to show the use of the CD "Red Shift 5.1", the Observer's Calendar, an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example, Nebosvod). Show on the Internet, Astrotop, portal: Astronomy V Wikipedia, - using which you can obtain information on an issue of interest or find it.
3. Ratings.

Homework: Introduction, §1; questions and tasks for self-control (page 11), No. 6 and 7 draw up diagrams, preferably in class; pp. 29-30 (p. 1-6) - main thoughts.
When studying the material about astronomical instruments in detail, you can ask students questions and tasks:
1. Determine the main characteristics of G. Galileo’s telescope.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Galilean refractor optical design compared to the Kepler refractor optical design?
3. Determine the main characteristics of the BTA. How many times more powerful is BTA than MSR?
4. What are the advantages of telescopes installed on board spacecraft?
5. What conditions must be satisfied by the site for the construction of an astronomical observatory?

The lesson was prepared by members of the “Internet Technologies” circle in 2002: Prytkov Denis (10th grade) And Disenova Anna (9th grade). Changed 09/01/2007

1. The need to keep track of time (calendar). (Ancient Egypt - relationship with astronomical phenomena noticed)
2. Finding your way by the stars, especially for sailors (the first sailing ships appeared 3 thousand years BC)
3. Curiosity is to understand current phenomena and put them to your service.
4. Caring about your destiny, which gave birth to astrology.

This ancient science arose to help a person navigate in time and space (calendars, geographical maps, navigation instruments were created on the basis of astronomical knowledge), as well as to predict various natural phenomena, one way or another connected with the movement of celestial bodies. Modern astronomy includes several sections.

Spherical astronomy using mathematical methods, studies the apparent location and movement of the Sun, Moon, stars, planets, satellites, including artificial bodies on the celestial sphere. This branch of astronomy is associated with the development theoretical foundations time accounts.

Practical astronomy represents knowledge about astronomical instruments and methods for determining time, geographic coordinates and azimuth directions from astronomical observations. It serves purely practical purposes and, depending on the place of application (in the sky, on land or at sea), is divided into three types: aviation, geodetic And seaworthy.

Astrophysics studies the physical state and chemical composition of celestial bodies and their systems, interstellar and intergalactic environments and the processes occurring in them. Being a branch of astronomy, but in turn is divided into sections depending on the object of study: physics of planets, natural satellites of planets, the Sun, the interstellar medium, stellar atmospheres, the internal structure and evolution of stars, the interstellar medium, and so on.

Celestial mechanics studies the movement of celestial bodies of the Solar System, including comets and artificial satellites of the Earth in their common gravitational field. The compilation of ephemeris also relates to the tasks of this section of astronomy.

Astrometry– a branch of astronomy associated with measuring the coordinates of celestial objects and studying the rotation of the Earth.

Stellar astronomy studies stellar systems (their clusters, galaxies), their composition, structure, dynamics, evolution.

Extragalactic astronomy studies cosmic celestial bodies located outside our star system (Galaxies), namely other galaxies, quasars and other ultra-distant objects.

Cosmogony studies the origin and development of cosmic bodies and their systems (the Solar system as a whole, as well as planets, stars, galaxies).

Cosmology- a study of space that studies the physical properties of the Universe as a whole, conclusions are drawn based on the results of research on that part of it that is available for observation and study.

Astrology none of the above is studied and most astronomical knowledge is completely useless for an astrologer. An astronomer also does not need to understand astrology, much less enter into discussions on this topic, which lies outside his interests and competence. However, a place was found on the astrological astronomy website. There will be here the necessary minimum of astronomical information, without which an astrologer cannot do, and everything that may be of interest to any person interested in astrology.

Etymology

The structure of astronomy as a scientific discipline

Extragalactic Astronomy: Gravitational Lensing. Several blue loop-shaped objects are visible, which are multiple images of a single galaxy, multiplied due to the gravitational lensing effect of a cluster of yellow galaxies near the center of the photo. The lens is created by the gravitational field of the cluster, which bends light rays, which leads to an increase and distortion of the image of a more distant object.

Modern astronomy is divided into a number of sections that are closely related to each other, so the division of astronomy is somewhat arbitrary. The main branches of astronomy are:

• Astrometry - studies the apparent positions and movements of luminaries. Previously, the role of astrometry also consisted of highly accurate determination of geographic coordinates and time by studying the movement of celestial bodies (now other methods are used for this). Modern astrometry consists of:
  • fundamental astrometry, the tasks of which are to determine the coordinates of celestial bodies from observations, compile catalogs of stellar positions and determine the numerical values ​​of astronomical parameters - quantities that allow one to take into account regular changes in the coordinates of luminaries;
  • spherical astronomy, which develops mathematical methods for determining the apparent positions and movements of celestial bodies using various coordinate systems, as well as the theory of regular changes in the coordinates of luminaries over time;
• Theoretical astronomy provides methods for determining the orbits of celestial bodies from their apparent positions and methods for calculating the ephemerides (apparent positions) of celestial bodies from the known elements of their orbits (the inverse problem).
• Celestial mechanics studies the laws of motion of celestial bodies under the influence of the forces of universal gravity, determines the masses and shape of celestial bodies and the stability of their systems.

These three sections mainly solve the first problem of astronomy (the study of the movement of celestial bodies), and they are often called classical astronomy.

• Astrophysics studies the structure, physical properties and chemical composition of celestial objects. It is divided into: a) practical (observational) astrophysics, in which practical methods of astrophysical research and corresponding instruments and instruments are developed and applied; b) theoretical astrophysics, in which, based on the laws of physics, explanations are given for observed physical phenomena.

A number of branches of astrophysics are distinguished by specific research methods.

• Stellar astronomy studies the patterns of spatial distribution and movement of stars, stellar systems and interstellar matter, taking into account their physical characteristics.

These two sections mainly address the second problem of astronomy (the structure of celestial bodies).

• Cosmogony examines questions of the origin and evolution of celestial bodies, including our Earth.
• Cosmology studies the general laws of the structure and development of the Universe.

Based on all the knowledge acquired about celestial bodies, the last two sections of astronomy solve its third problem (the origin and evolution of celestial bodies).

The course of general astronomy contains a systematic presentation of information about the basic methods and the most important results obtained by various branches of astronomy.

One of the new directions, formed only in the second half of the 20th century, is archaeoastronomy, which studies the astronomical knowledge of ancient people and helps to date ancient structures based on the phenomenon of Earth precession.

Stellar astronomy

Planetary Ant Nebula - Mz3. The ejection of gas from the dying central star shows a symmetrical pattern, in contrast to the chaotic patterns of conventional explosions.

Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are formed in stars.

Astronomy subjects

Problems of astronomy

Main tasks astronomy are:

1. The study of the visible, and then the actual positions and movements of celestial bodies in space, determining their sizes and shapes.
2. The study of the structure of celestial bodies, the study of the chemical composition and physical properties (density, temperature, etc.) of the substances in them.
3. Solving problems of the origin and development of individual celestial bodies and the systems they form.
4. Studying the most general properties Universe, building a theory of the observable part of the Universe - Metagalaxy.

Solving these problems requires the creation of effective research methods - both theoretical and practical. The first problem is solved through long-term observations, begun in ancient times, and also on the basis of the laws of mechanics, known for about 300 years. Therefore, in this area of ​​astronomy we have the richest information, especially for celestial bodies relatively close to the Earth: the Moon, the Sun, planets, asteroids, etc.

The solution to the second problem became possible in connection with the advent of spectral analysis and photography. The study of the physical properties of celestial bodies began in the second half of the 19th century, and the main problems - only in recent years.

The third task requires the accumulation of observable material. At present, such data are not yet sufficient to accurately describe the process of origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems. Therefore, knowledge in this area is limited only to general considerations and a number of more or less plausible hypotheses.

The fourth task is the largest and most difficult. Practice shows that existing physical theories are no longer sufficient to solve this problem. It is necessary to create a more general physical theory capable of describing the state of matter and physical processes at limiting values ​​of density, temperature, pressure. To solve this problem, observational data are required in regions of the Universe located at distances of several billion light years. Modern technical capabilities do not allow detailed study of these areas. However, this problem is now the most pressing and is being successfully solved by astronomers in a number of countries, including Russia.

History of astronomy

Even in ancient times, people noticed the relationship between the movement of celestial bodies across the sky and periodic weather changes. Astronomy was then thoroughly mixed with astrology. Final selection scientific astronomy happened during the Renaissance and took a long time.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, which arose from the practical needs of mankind. By the location of the stars and constellations, primitive farmers determined the onset of the seasons. Nomadic tribes were guided by the Sun and stars. The need for chronology led to the creation of a calendar. There is evidence that even prehistoric people knew about the basic phenomena associated with the rising and setting of the Sun, Moon and some stars. The periodic recurrence of eclipses of the Sun and Moon has been known for a very long time. Among the oldest written sources there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive calculation schemes for predicting the times of sunrise and sunset of bright celestial bodies and methods for counting time and maintaining a calendar. Astronomy developed successfully in Ancient Babylon, Egypt, China and India. The Chinese chronicle describes an eclipse of the Sun that took place in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Theories, which, on the basis of developed arithmetic and geometry, explained and predicted the movements of the Sun, Moon and bright planets, were created in the Mediterranean countries in the last centuries of the pre-Christian era and, together with simple but effective instruments, served practical purposes until the Renaissance.

Astronomy reached especially great development in Ancient Greece. Pythagoras first came to the conclusion that the Earth is spherical, and Aristarchus of Samos suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Hipparchus in the 2nd century. BC e. compiled one of the first star catalogs. In Ptolemy’s work “Almagest”, written in Art. 2. n. e., set out by the so-called. geocentric system of the world, which has been generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years. In the Middle Ages, astronomy achieved significant development in the countries of the East. In the 15th century Ulugbek built an observatory near Samarkand with instruments that were accurate at that time. The first catalog of stars after Hipparchus was compiled here. From the 16th century The development of astronomy in Europe begins. New demands were put forward in connection with the development of trade and navigation and the emergence of industry, contributed to the liberation of science from the influence of religion and led to a number of major discoveries.

The birth of modern astronomy is associated with the rejection of geocentric system the world of Ptolemy (2nd century) and its replacement by the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus (mid-16th century), with the beginning of studies of celestial bodies using a telescope (Galileo, early 17th century) and the discovery of the law of universal gravity (Isaac Newton, late 17th century). The 18th-19th centuries were for astronomy a period of accumulation of information and knowledge about the Solar System, our Galaxy and the physical nature of the stars, the Sun, planets and other cosmic bodies. The advent of large telescopes and systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk-shaped system consisting of many billions of stars - a galaxy. At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomers discovered that this system was one of millions of similar galaxies. The discovery of other galaxies became the impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy. The study of the spectra of galaxies allowed Edwin Hubble in 1929 to identify the phenomenon of “galaxy recession”, which was subsequently explained on the basis of the general expansion of the Universe.

In the 20th century, astronomy was divided into two main branches: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomy focuses on observations of celestial bodies, which are then analyzed using the basic laws of physics. Theoretical astronomy is focused on the development of models (analytical or computer) to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two branches complement each other: theoretical astronomy seeks explanations for observational results, and observational astronomy is used to confirm theoretical conclusions and hypotheses.

The scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century had an extremely great influence on the development of astronomy in general and especially astrophysics. The creation of high-resolution optical and radio telescopes, the use of rockets and artificial Earth satellites for extra-atmospheric astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of cosmic bodies: radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, X-ray sources, etc. The fundamentals of the theory of the evolution of stars and solar cosmogony were developed systems. The achievement of astrophysics of the 20th century was relativistic cosmology - the theory of the evolution of the Universe as a whole.

2009 was declared by the UN as the International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009). The main focus is on increasing public interest and understanding of astronomy. It is one of the few sciences where lay people can still play an active role. Amateur astronomy has contributed to a number of important astronomical discoveries.

Astronomical observations

In astronomy, information is mainly obtained from identification and analysis visible light and other spectra of electromagnetic radiation in space. Astronomical observations can be divided according to the region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the measurements are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth (that is, its surface), while other observations are carried out only at high altitudes or in space (in spacecraft orbiting the Earth). Details of these study groups are provided below.

Optical astronomy

Historically, optical astronomy (also called visible light astronomy) is the oldest form of space exploration - astronomy. The optical images were first drawn by hand. IN late XIX century and most of the twentieth century, research was carried out on the basis of images obtained using photographs taken with photographic equipment. Modern images are obtained using digital detectors, in particular charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors. Although visible light covers the range from approximately 4000 Ǻ to 7000 Ǻ (400-700 nanometers), the equipment used in this range can also be used to study the similar ultraviolet and infrared ranges.

Infrared astronomy

Infrared astronomy concerns the study, detection and analysis of infrared radiation in space. Although its wavelength is close to that of visible light, infrared radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, and the Earth's atmosphere has significant infrared radiation. Therefore, observatories for studying infrared radiation must be located in high and dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cool to emit visible light, such as planets and surrounding stellar disks. Infrared rays can pass through dust clouds that absorb visible light, allowing observations of young stars in molecular clouds and galactic nuclei. Some molecules emit powerful infrared radiation, and this can be used to study chemical processes in space (for example, detecting water in comets).

Ultraviolet astronomy

Ultraviolet astronomy primarily used for detailed observation at ultraviolet wavelengths from approximately 100 to 3200 Ǻ (10 to 320 nanometers). Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so studies of this range are carried out from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is better suited for studying hot stars (UV stars), since most of the radiation occurs in this range. This includes studies of blue stars in other galaxies and planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei. However, ultraviolet radiation is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, so during measurements it is necessary to make allowances for the presence of the latter in the space environment.

Radio astronomy

Very Large Array of Radio Telescopes in Sirocco, New Mexico, USA

Radio astronomy is the study of radiation with wavelengths greater than one millimeter (approximately). Radio astronomy differs from most other types of astronomical observations in that the radio waves being studied can be viewed as waves, rather than as individual photons. So, it is possible to measure both the amplitude and phase of a radio wave, which is not so easy to do on short wave bands.

Although some radio waves are emitted by astronomical objects as thermal radiation, most radio emission observed from Earth is synchrotron radiation in origin, which occurs when electrons move in a magnetic field. In addition, some spectral lines are produced by interstellar gas, notably the 21 cm long neutral hydrogen spectral line.

A wide variety of cosmic objects are observed in the radio range, in particular supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars and active galactic nuclei.

X-ray astronomy

X-ray astronomy studies astronomical objects in the X-ray range. Objects typically emit X-rays due to:

Since X-ray radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, X-ray observations are mainly carried out from orbital stations, rockets or spaceships. Known X-ray sources in space include X-ray binaries, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, galaxy clusters, and active galactic nuclei.

Gamma-ray astronomy

Astronomical gamma rays appear in studies of astronomical objects with short wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays can be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Telescope or specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes. These telescopes do not actually measure gamma rays directly, but record the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, due to various physical processes that occur with the charged particles that occur during absorption, such as the Compton effect or Cherenkov radiation.

Most gamma ray sources are actually gamma ray burst sources, which emit only gamma rays for a short period of time ranging from a few milliseconds to a thousand seconds before dissipating into space. Only 10% of gamma radiation sources are not transient sources. Stationary gamma-ray sources include pulsars, neutron stars, and black hole candidates in active galactic nuclei.

Astronomy of fields that are not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

Based on very large distances, not only electromagnetic radiation reaches the Earth, but also other types of elementary particles.

A new direction in the variety of astronomy methods could be gravitational wave astronomy, which seeks to use gravitational wave detectors to collect observational data about compact objects. Several observatories have already been built, such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO, but gravitational waves are very difficult to detect and remain elusive.

Planetary astronomy also uses direct study using spacecraft and Sample Return missions. These include flying missions using sensors; landers that can conduct experiments on the surface of objects, and also allow for remote sensing of materials or objects and missions to deliver samples to Earth for direct laboratory research.

Astrometry and celestial mechanics

One of the oldest subfields of astronomy, it deals with measuring the position of celestial objects. This branch of astronomy is called astrometry. Historically accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars plays an extremely important role in navigation. Careful measurements of the planets' positions have led to a deep understanding of gravitational disturbances, allowing them to be accurately determined in the past and predicted for the future. This branch is known as celestial mechanics. Now tracking near-Earth objects makes it possible to predict the approach to them, as well as possible collisions of various objects with the Earth.

Measuring the stellar parallaxes of nearby stars is fundamental to determining distances in deep space, which is used to measure the scale of the Universe. These measurements provided the basis for determining the properties of distant stars; properties can be compared with neighboring stars. Measurements of radial velocities and proper motions of celestial bodies make it possible to study the kinematics of these systems in our galaxy. Astrometric results can be used to measure the distribution of dark matter in a galaxy.

In the 1990s, astrometric methods for measuring stellar vibrations were used to detect large extrasolar planets (planets orbiting nearby stars).

Extra-atmospheric astronomy

Research using space technology occupies a special place among the methods of studying celestial bodies and the space environment. The beginning was made with the launch in the USSR in 1957 of the world's first artificial satellite Earth. Spacecraft have made it possible to conduct research in all wavelength ranges of electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, modern astronomy is often called all-wave astronomy. Extra-atmospheric observations make it possible to receive radiation in space that is absorbed or greatly altered by the earth's atmosphere: radio emissions of certain wavelengths that do not reach the Earth, as well as corpuscular radiation from the Sun and other bodies. The study of these previously inaccessible types of radiation from stars and nebulae, the interplanetary and interstellar medium has greatly enriched our knowledge of the physical processes of the Universe. In particular, previously unknown sources of X-ray radiation were discovered - X-ray pulsars. A lot of information about the nature of bodies and their systems distant from us has also been obtained thanks to studies carried out using spectrographs installed on various spacecraft.

Theoretical astronomy

Main article: Theoretical astronomy

Theoretical astronomers use a wide range of tools that include analytical models (for example, polytropes predicting the approximate behavior of stars) and numerical simulation calculations. Each method has its own advantages. An analytical process model usually provides a better understanding of why something happens. Numerical models can indicate the presence of phenomena and effects that would likely not be visible otherwise.

Astronomy theorists strive to create theoretical models and explore the consequences of these simulations through research. This allows observers to look for data that may refute a model or helps in choosing between several alternative or conflicting models. Theorists are also experimenting with creating or modifying the model to take account of new data. If there is a discrepancy, the general tendency is to try to make minimal changes to the model and adjust the result. In some cases, a large amount of conflicting data over time can lead to complete failure of the model.

Topics studied by theoretical astronomers: stellar dynamics and evolution of galaxies; large-scale structure of the Universe; the origin of cosmic rays, general relativity and physical cosmology, in particular stellar cosmology and astrophysics. Astrophysical relativities serve as a tool for assessing the properties of large-scale structures for which gravity plays a significant role in physical phenomena and as a basis for black hole research, astrophysics, and the study of gravitational waves. Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy are now included in Lambda-CDM models, the Big Bang, cosmic expansion, dark matter and fundamental theories of physics.

Amateur astronomy

Astronomy is one of the sciences in which amateur contributions can be significant. In general, all amateur astronomers observe various celestial objects and phenomena to a greater extent than scientists, although their technical resources are much less than those of state institutions; sometimes they build equipment for themselves (as was the case 2 centuries ago). Finally, most scientists came from this environment. The main objects of observation for amateur astronomers are the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers and various deep sky objects, namely star clusters, galaxies and nebulae. One of the branches of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves photographic recording of areas of the night sky. Many amateurs would like to specialize in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.

Amateur astronomers continue to contribute to astronomy. Indeed, it is one of the few disciplines where amateur contributions can be significant. Quite often they carry out point measurements, which are used to clarify the orbits of small planets; in part, they also detect comets, and carry out regular observations of variable stars. And advances in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive progress in the field of astrophotography.

see also

Codes in knowledge classification systems

• State rubricator of scientific and technical information (GRNTI) (as of 2001): 41 ASTRONOMY

Notes

1. , With. 5
2. Marochnik L.S. Physics of Space. - 1986.
3. Electromagnetic Spectrum. NASA. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved September 8, 2006.
4. Moore, P. Philip's Atlas of the Universe. - Great Britain: George Philis Limited, 1997. - ISBN 0-540-07465-9
5. Staff. Why infrared astronomy is a hot topic, ESA(11 September 2003). Archived from the original on July 30, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
6. Infrared Spectroscopy – An Overview, NASA/IPAC. Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
7. Allen's Astrophysical Quantities / Cox, A. N.. - New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000. - P. 124. - ISBN 0-387-98746-0
8. Penston, Margaret J. The electromagnetic spectrum. Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (14 August 2002). Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. Retrieved August 17, 2006.
9. Gaisser Thomas K. Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics. - Cambridge University Press, 1990. - P. 1–2. - ISBN 0-521-33931-6
10. Tammann, G. A.; Thielemann, F. K.; Trautmann, D. Opening new windows in observing the Universe. Europhysics News (2003). Archived from the original on September 6, 2012. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
11. Calvert, James B. Celestial Mechanics. University of Denver (March 28, 2003). Archived from the original on September 7, 2006. Retrieved August 21, 2006.
12. Hall of Precision Astrometry. University of Virginia Department of Astronomy. Archived from the original on August 26, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
13. Wolszczan, A.; Frail, D. A. (1992). "A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257+12." Nature 355 (6356): 145–147. DOI:10.1038/355145a0. Bibcode: 1992Natur.355..145W.
14. Roth, H. (1932). "A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability". Physical Review 39 (3): 525–529. DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.39.525. Bibcode: 1932PhRv...39..525R.
15. Eddington A.S. Internal Constitution of the Stars. - Cambridge University Press, 1926. - ISBN 978-0-521-33708-3
16. Mims III, Forrest M. (1999). "Amateur Science-Strong Tradition, Bright Future." Science 284 (5411): 55–56. DOI:10.1126/science.284.5411.55. Bibcode: 1999Sci...284...55M. “Astronomy has traditionally been among the most fertile fields for serious amateurs [...]”
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18. Lodriguss, Jerry Catching the Light: Astrophotography. Archived from the original on September 1, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
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More than once, raising our eyes to the night sky, we wondered - what is in this endless space?


The universe is fraught with many secrets and mysteries, but there is a science called astronomy, which has been studying space for many years and trying to explain its origin. What kind of science is this? What do astronomers do and what exactly do they study?

What does the word "astronomy" mean?

The term “astronomy” appeared in Ancient Greece in the 3rd–2nd centuries BC, when such scientists as Pythagoras and Hipparchus shone in the scientific community. The concept is a combination of two ancient Greek words - ἀστήρ (star) and νόμος (law), that is, astronomy is the law of the stars.

This term should not be confused with another concept - astrology, which studies the effects of celestial bodies on the Earth and humans.

What is astronomy?

Astronomy is the science of the Universe that determines the location, structure and formation of celestial bodies. IN modern times it includes several sections:

— astrometry, which studies the location and movement of space objects;

- celestial mechanics - determining the mass and shape of stars, studying the laws of their movement under the influence of gravitational forces;


— theoretical astronomy, within which scientists develop analytical and computer models of celestial bodies and phenomena;

- astrophysics - the study of the chemical and physical properties of space objects.

Separate branches of science are aimed at studying the patterns of the spatial arrangement of stars and planets and considering the evolution of celestial bodies.

In the 20th century, a new section appeared in astronomy called archaeoastronomy, aimed at studying astronomical history and elucidating knowledge of the stars in ancient times.

What does astronomy study?

The subjects of astronomy are the Universe as a whole and all the objects in it - stars, planets, asteroids, comets, galaxies, constellations. Astronomers study interplanetary and interstellar matter, time, black holes, nebulae, and celestial coordinate systems.


In a word, under their close attention is everything related to space and its development, including astronomical instruments, symbols, etc.

When did astronomy appear?

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences on Earth. It is impossible to name the exact date of its appearance, but it is well known that people have been studying stars since at least the 6th–4th millennia BC.

Many astronomical tables left by the priests of Babylon, calendars of the Mayan tribes, Ancient Egypt And Ancient China. Ancient Greek scientists made a great contribution to the development of astronomy and the study of celestial bodies. Pythagoras was the first to suggest that our planet is spherical, and Aristarchus of Samos was the first to draw conclusions about its rotation around the Sun.

For a long time astronomy was related to astrology, but during the Renaissance it became a separate science. Thanks to the advent of telescopes, scientists were able to discover the Milky Way galaxy, and at the beginning of the 20th century they realized that the Universe consists of many galactic spaces.

The greatest achievement of modern times has been the emergence of the theory of the evolution of the Universe, according to which it expands over time.

What is amateur astronomy?

Amateur astronomy is a hobby in which people unrelated to scientific and research centers observe space objects. It must be said that such entertainment makes a significant contribution to general development astronomy.


Amateurs have made many interesting and quite important discoveries. In particular, in 1877, Russian observer Evgraf Bykhanov was the first to express modern views on the formation of the Solar System, and in 2009, Australian Anthony Wesley discovered traces of the fall of a cosmic body (presumably a comet) on the planet Jupiter.